RAMMAR 

OP  THE 

ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE 

POWELIMD  CONNOLLY 


^. 


-    ' 


A  RATIONAL  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


BY 

W.    B.    POWELL,  A.M. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,   WASHINGTON,    D.C. 
AND 

LOUISE   CONNOLLY,   M.S. 


NEW  YORK-:- CINCINNATI.:- CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,   1899,  EY 
W.  B.  POWELL  AND  LOUISE  CONNOLLY. 


P.   C.    GRAM. 
W.   P.   I 


PREFACE 

MANY  of  the  rules  and  much  of  the  terminology  of  the  first 
English  grammars,  as  is  well  known,  were  based  largely  on  the 
rules  and  terminology  of  Latin  grammar,  because  at  the  time 
these  grammars  were  written  Latin  was  the  language  of  scholars. 
The  grammar  for  the  new  language  was  made  to  correspond  to 
the  one  with  which  the  authors  were  most  familiar.  The  resulting 
distortion  of  the  facts  of  the  English  language  on  which  a  gram- 
mar of  the  language  should  be  based  has  long  been  the  bane  of 
this  study.  In  making  this  book  the  authors,  recognizing  the 
small  amount  of  inflectional  element  found  in  English,  have 
shown  the  relation  element  that  characterizes  the  language.  This 
grammar  presents  the  study  of  our  language  as  it  exists,  free  from 
the  trammels  of  a  forced  analogy  with  Latin,  yet  avoiding  the 
serious  error  of  teaching  Anglo-Saxon  more  than  English. 

Some  of  the  merits  claimed  for  the  book  are  a  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  subject  treated,  a  simple  and  clear  statement  of 
hitherto  puzzling  points  in  grammar,  and  an  adequate  emphasis 
of  the  practical  side  of  the  study,  —  the  correct  forming  of  the 
speech  of  the  pupil.  The  pupil  being  led  to  think  for  himself  (a 
matter  as  important  in  the  study  of  grammar  as  it  is  in  the  study 
of  other  sciences)  finds  the  subject  so  shorn  of  its  terrors  that 
it  is  interesting. 

Analysis  precedes  parsing,  the  sentence  being  divided  into  its 
great  parts  according  to  a  simple  system  of  classification  based 
on  a  single  principle,  use.  This  broad  analysis  is  carried  far 
enough  for  the  learner  to  recognize,  from  sentences  studied,  all 
those  uses  of  words  on  which  their  classification  into  parts  of 

3 


4  PREFACE 

speech  depends.  After  this  study  of  the  sentence,  parts  of  speech 
are  taught,  when  a  more  refined  analysis  is  given  by  which  it  is 
shown  that  the  meaning  of  a  word  rather  than  its  use  determines 
the  kind  of  modifiers  which  it  takes ;  thus  the  learner  is  led  to 
study  the -parts  of  speech  from  two  points  of  view. 

The  treatment  of  the  verb  is  an  especial  feature  of  this  book,  in 
which  is  recognized  the  tendency  in  modern  languages,  especially 
pronounced  in  English,  to  differentiate  the  words  embraced  by 
this  part  of  speech  into  those  that  assert  and  those  that  express 
action.  The  treatment  of  the  verb  made  possible  by  the  recog- 
nition of  this  important  movement  in  language  simplifies  its  study 
very  much. 

Throughout  the  book  the  learner  is  afforded  opportunity  to 
make  English  for  the  exemplification  of  principles  which  he  has 
been  led  by  analysis  to  see  and  understand. 

Special  chapters  treat  of  idioms  and  peculiar  constructions  ; 
the  chief  uses  of  punctuation  marks  are  taught  by  examples  which 
show  inductively  the  grammatical  principles  on  which  these  uses 
depend  ;  and  the  important  rules  of  spelling  and  word  building 
are  taught  in  a  corresponding  way. 

Every  feature  of  this  book  has  been  thoroughly  tried  in  the 
Washington  schools,  and  has  undergone  the  careful  scrutiny  of 
expert  philologists.  The  authors  acknowledge  with  gratitude 
their  indebtedness  to  Miss  Carl  L.  Garrison,  Principal  of  the 
Phelps  School,  Washington,  for  her  invaluable  cooperation  in  the 
collection  of  materials  for  the  book,  in  writing  the  lessons,  and  in 
testing  the  practical  values  of  the  work. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 7 

PART   I 

SIMPLE  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER 

I.     The  Sentence 9 

II.     Classification  of  Elements  according  to  Use  .         .         .23 

III.  Classification  of  Elements  according  to  Structure  .         .  47 

IV.  Compounds 68 

PART   II 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH  AND  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS 

V.     Words 81 

VI.     Nouns 84 

VII.     Adjectives 106 

VIII.     Pronouns 118 

IX.     Verbs    . 141 

X.     Adverbs 185 

XI.     Relation  Words 191 

XII.     Independent  Words       .......  201 

XIII.     Complete  Analysis  of  Sentences 204 


CONTENTS 


PART   III 
APPLICATIONS  OF  GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV.     Punctuation  and  Capitalization       .         .         .         .         .210 

XV.     Arrangement  of  Words  in  the  Sentence          .         .         .217 

XVI.     Agreement  and  Government 226 


PART    IV 
SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS 

XVII.     Infinitives  and  Participles 233 

XVIII.     Fine  Points  of  Analysis 250 

XIX.     Idioms 267 

XX.     Sentences  for  Analysis 272 

PART   V 

ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

XXI.     English  Derivatives 276 

APPENDIX 

1 .  Irregular  Verbs 289 

2.  Complete  Conjugation 295 

3.  History  of  the  English  Language 301 

4.  Additional  Study  in  Word  Building 306 

5.  Advanced  Work  in  Word  Building 310 

INDEX 313 


INTRODUCTION. 

IF  we  were  asked  to  give  a  distinction  between  man  and 
the  lower  animals,  we  should  agree  that  one  important 
difference  is  that  man  possesses  true  speech  or  language, 
whereas  the  lower  animals  do  not. 

This  speech  or  language  is  the  chief  means  by  which  one 
man  communicates  his  thoughts  and  feelings  to  another. 

The  lower  animals  also  are  capable  of  expressing  in  a 
limited  degree  their  feelings  by  means  of  sounds,  as  every 
one  must  know  who  has  heard  the  howl  of  a  hungry  dog 
or  the  song  of  a  bird  in  summer ;  but  it  frequently  takes  a 
good  deal  of  action  accompanying  these  sounds  to  express 
a  desire  even  imperfectly.  Thus  when  a  dog  accompanies 
his  howling  by  scratching  at  the  door,  we  know,  not  only 
his  distress,  but  his  desire  to  get  in. 

There  are  a  great  many  languages  used  by  the  various 
peoples  of  the  world,  but  it  is  thought  by  those  who  have 
studied  the  subject  carefully  that  many  of  the  European 
languages  are  variations  of  some  single  language  which 
was  formerly  spoken  by  our  common  ancestors.  Various 
degrees  of  relationship  are  found  among  the  various 
languages.  Our  own  English,  for  instance,  is  much  like 
the  German,  as  you  may  see  by  comparing  a  few  sentences. 

ENGLISH.  GERMAN. 

Who  is  that?  Wer  1st  das? 

The  man  was  here.  Der  Mann  war  hier. 

There  is  a  man.  Da  1st  ein  Mann. 

Here  is  my  hand.  Hier  ist  meine  Hand. 

In  fact,  English  is  called  a  Germanic  language.  But 
German  is  not  the  only  foreign  tongue  to  which  our  Eng- 


8  INTR  OD  UC  TION 

lish  is  related.  The  French  say  L* exercice  est simple:  The 
exercise  is  simple.  La  table  est  grande:  The  table  is  large. 
Many  words  that  are  similar  in  English  and  French  were 
taken  from  an  older  language,  —  Latin.  In  fact,  we  have 
obtained  our  words  chiefly  from  three  sources,  —  French, 
Latin,  and  an  old  Germanic  language  called  Saxon.  This 
makes  our  language  very  rich  in  variety  of  expression. 
For  instance,  one  may  say,  That  child  is  good,  or,  A  certain 
individual  is  virtuous.  In  these  sentences,  child,  is,  and 
good  are  from  Germanic  sources,  while  certain  and  virtuous 
are  from  the  French,  and  individual  is  from  the  Latin. 

Grammar  inquires  how  the  best  writers  and  speakers  use 
language,  and  forms  from  their  usage  rules  to  guide  others. 

As  most  of  the  European  languages  are  pretty  closely 
related,  you  would  not  be  surprised  to  find,  should  you 
study  French,  Spanish,  or  Italian,  Dutch  or  German, 
Latin  or  Greek,  that  their  grammars,  that  is,  their  modes 
of  using  words  to  make  statements,  are  much  like  the 
English,  and  that  many  rules  made  from  observing  one  of 
these  languages  apply  to  all,  so  that  there  is  indeed  a  gen- 
eral grammar.  A  certain  way  of  using  words  found  to  be 
peculiar  to  one  language  is  called  an  idiom  of  that  lan- 
guage. For  instance,  it  is  an  English  idiom  to  say,  How 
are  you  ?  for  a  Frenchman  would  say,  How  do  you  carry 
yourself?  (Comment  vous  portez  von  s  ? ),  and  a  German,  How 
do  you  find  yourself  ?  (  Wie  befinden  Sie  sich  ?).  While  we 
say,  There  is  a  story  about  that,  the  French  say,  It  there  has 
(II y  a)  a  story,  and  the  Germans,  It  gives  (Es  gibt)  a  story. 
These  peculiar  methods  of  combining  words  are  idioms  re- 
spectively of  the  English,  French,  and  German  languages. 

An  English  grammar,  therefore,  should  state  the  main 
facts  which  are  true  in  many  languages,  and  also  give 
the  special  features  true  only  of  idiomatic  English. 


PART  L  — SIMPLE  ANALYSIS. 

CHAPTER   I.  — THE   SENTENCE. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Ideas  must  be  related  in  order  to  express  thought. 

The  relation  may  be  asserted  or  assumed. 

The  expression  of  a  thought  in  completed  form  is  called  a  sentence. 

Of  two  related  terms,  one  may  modify  the  other. 

The  term  which  is  modified  is  called  the  base. 

The  term  which  modifies  is  called  the  modifier. 

According  to  their  uses,  sentences  are  declarative,  interrogative,  or 
imperative.  According  to  their  manner  of  expression,  they  are  pure  or 
exclamatory. 

The  pure  declarative  sentence  is  the  typical  sentence. 

If  two  or  more  expressions  which,  standing  alone,  would  be  sen- 
tences, are  united  in  one  sentence,  each  is  called  a  clause. 

A  sentence  made  up  of  unlike  clauses  is  a  mixed  sentence. 

1.   ASSERTION. 

One  person  may  express  ideas  to  another  by  signs.  The 
signs  may  be  made  in  many  ways  ;  for  example,  with  the 
hands,  as  is  done  by  those  who  are  dumb  ;  or  with  flags,  as 
is  done  when  two  ships  meet  at  sea ;  or  by  lights,  as  on  a 
railroad.  The  most  common  way  of  expressing  ideas  is  by 
means  of  words,  either  spoken  or  written. 

EXAMPLES.     Man,  cat,  dog,  bird,  fly,  white,  black,  singing,  running. 
Each  of  these  words  is  the  sign  used  to  represent  an  idea. 

A  word  may  be  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

9 


10  THE   SENTENCE 

The  words  brick  singing,  or  the  words  easy  stone,  spoken 
or  written  together,  seem  out  of  place  because  the  ideas 
for  which  they  stand  bear  no  logical  relation  to  each  other. 
The  words  red  brick,  or  black  dog,  or  singing  bird,  when 
put  together,  combine  suitably  because  the  ideas  for  which 
they  stand  may  bear  logical  relation  to  each  other ;  so  we 
say  these  words  are  related. 

Good  mother. 

Good  and  mother  are  two  simple  ideas  which  can  be 
joined  logically.  The  expression  good  motJier,  then,  repre- 
sents related  ideas  ;  that  is,  a  thought. 

In  the  expression  candy  is  sweet,  the  sweetness  of  the 
candy  is  told  or  asserted ;  the  fact  that  there  is  a  relation 
between  the  word  sivect  and  the  word  candy  is  asserted  by 
the  word  is.  In  the  expression  sweet  candy,  the  sweetness 
of  the  candy  is  not  asserted,  but  is  taken  for  granted  or 
assumed,  and  the  relation  of  the  word  sweet  to  the  word 
candy  is  assumed.  In  the  expression  hair  is  brown,  the 
relation  of  brown  to  hair  is  asserted.  In  the  expression 
broivn  hair,  the  relation  of  brown  to  hair  is  assumed. 

Exercise. 

In  the  following  expressions  tell  which  relations  are  assumed,  and 
which  are  asserted  :  — 

1.  Good  men.  n.  Fair  little  girl. 

2.  Men  are  good.  12.  The  little  girl  is  fair. 

3.  Brave  boys.  13.  Long  pencil. 

4.  Boys  are  brave.  14.  The  boat  is  sailing. 

5.  Falling  snow.  15.  The  lesson  is  hard. 

6.  Long  days  of  summer.  16.  Broken  pencil. 

7.  Snow  is  falling.  17.  Sweet  apple. 

8.  Days  of  summer  are  long.  18.  Sharp  knife. 

9.  Black  cat.  19.  The  pencil  is  broken. 
10.  The  cat  is  black.  20.  My  apple  is  sweet. 


THOUGHTS  II 

Assume  the  relation  of  good  to  children  ;  assert  it. 
Assume  the  relation  of  bright  to  star ;  assert  it. 
Assume  the  relation  of  happy  to  bird ;  assert  it. 
Assume  the  relation  of  sour  to  oranges ;  assert  it. 

2.   THE   COMPLETED   FORM. 

Tall  tree. 

These  words  leave  the  mind  expecting  that  something 
more  will  be  said.  Do  they  indicate  an  assumed  or  an 
asserted  relation  ? 

An  expression  showing  a  relation  assumed  leaves  the 
mind  in  a  state  of  expectation. 

The  tree  is  tall. 
This  assertion  leaves  the  mind  in  a  satisfied  condition. 

Bright  star. 

The  star  is  bright. 

Which  of  these  expressions  leaves  the  mind  satisfied, 
and  is  complete  in  form  ?  Which  leaves  the  mind  expect- 
ing more,  and  is  incomplete  in  form  ? 

A  thought  may  be  expressed  in  a  completed  form  by  an  assertion  of 
relation,  or  in  an  uncompleted  form  by  an  assumption  of  relation. 

Exercise. 

Write  five  thoughts  about  children,  assuming  all  the  relations. 

Write  five  thoughts  about  children,  asserting  some  relation. 

Write  five  thoughts  in  the  form  of  assertions. 

Write  the  same  five  thoughts,  assuming  the  relations  which  were 
formerly  asserted. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  thoughts  are  expressed  in  completed 
form,  and  which  in  uncompleted  form  :  — 

1.  An  old  rocking-chair.  4.    The  rocking-chair  is  old. 

2.  The  cat  is  sleeping.  5.    The  apple  is  red. 

3.  Red  apple.  6.    The  broken  pitcher. 


12  THE  SENTENCE 

7.  A  stormy  day.  12.    The  fire  burns  cheerfully. 

8.  My  pitcher  is  broken.  13.    A  bright,  starlight  night. 

9.  A  cold,  driving  rain.  14.    The  man  was  lazy. 

10.  The  day  was  stormy.  15.    A  lazy  man. 

11.  Many  beautiful  houses.  16.    Four  little  boys. 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  a  completed  form. 

3.     THE  BASE. 

In  the  expression  black  dog,  dog  is  modified  or  described 
by  black,  so  we  call  dog  the  central  or  chief  idea.  In  the 
expression  little  black  dog,  dog  is  still  the  central  idea, 
described  by  little  and  black. 

Out  of  any  expression  in  which  the  relations  are  as- 
sumed, it  is  usually  possible  to  select  the  word  expressing 
the  central  idea. 

In  a  group  of  words  whose  relations  are  assumed,  the 
word  expressing  the  central  idea  is  called  the  base.  The 
words  expressing  the  other  ideas  serve  to  describe  or  mod- 
ify this  base. 

EXAMPLE.     Little  kitten. 

Kitten  is  the  base  of  this  expression,  modified  by  little. 

EXAMPLE.     My  little  white  kitten. 

Kitten  is  the  base  of  this  expression,  modified  by  my*  little,  and 
white. 

The  6ase  of  a  group  of  words  is  that  part  which  the  other  word  or 
words  of  the  group  modify.  Any  part  of  a  group  of  words  which 
modifies  the  meaning  of  the  base  is  called  a  modifier. 

Exercise. 
Select  the  base  in  each  of  the  following  groups  of  words  :  — 

1.  old  man  5.    large  ripe  strawberries 

2.  young  boys  6.    my  little  sister 

3.  pretty  children  7.    many  famous  men 

4.  a  large  salmon  8.   a  word  to  the  wise 


ESSENTIALS   OF  A   SENTENCE  13 

9.  driving  slowly  13.  our  handsome  new  flag 

10.  four  young  puppies  14.  the  watch  on  the  table 

11.  a  bright  sunny  day  15.  an  approaching  storm 

12.  the  famous  little  actor  16.  walking  slowly  toward  us 

Use  each  of  the  following  words  as  the  base  of  a  group  of  words 

whose  relations  are  assumed  :  — 

1.  boys  6.  swimming 

2.  house  7.  frightened 

3.  cat  8.  watch 

4.  lamp  9.  tower 

5.  running  10.  climbing 

4.     DRILL  ON  SENTENCES. 

What  is  a  thought?  (p.  10.)  We  have  seen  that  a 
thought  may  be  expressed  in  completed  form  or  in  uncom- 
pleted form.  What  name  is  applied  to  the  expression  of  a 
thought  in  completed  form  ? 

These  expressions  are  sentences  :  — 

The  sky  is  blue.  New  York  is  a  very  large  city. 

Bees  love  honey.  Was  the  bird  singing  ? 

Water  freezes.  Little  children,  love  one  another. 

How  beautiful  is  the  moon  ! 

These  expressions  are  not  sentences :  — 

A  glass  of  water.  The  beautiful  sea. 

Honest  men.  The  procession  having  started. 

The  sun  having  set.  The  winter  being  long. 

The  sunny  days  of  spring.  Smoking  ruins. 

Exercise. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  expressions  are  sentences,  and  which 
are  not  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  high  hill.  5.    Running  water. 

2.  The  fire  raged  fiercely.  6.    Our  bell  has  not  rung  yet. 

3.  Writing  busily.  7.    The  baby  smiled. 

4.  These  three  boys  are  singing.  8.    A  day  of  sunshine. 


14  THE  SENTENCE 

9.    Rolling  a  hoop. 
10.   And  moving  toward  us. 
u.    An  afternoon  in  the  woods. 

12.  The  children  had  a  picnic. 

13.  In  a  beautiful  sunny  meadow. 

14.  My  son,  forget  not  my  law. 

15.  Having  resolved  to  suffer  for  their  faith. 

1 6.  The  light  of  the  body  is  the  eye. 

17.  The  mother  of  the  blue-eyed  boy. 

1 8.  Because  I  have  called,  and  ye  refused. 

19.  Without  fear,  and  without  reproach. 

20.  And  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  ! 

21.  The  sea,  the  sea,  the  open  sea, 
The  blue,  the  fresh,  the  ever  free. 

22.  He  sings  to  the  wide  world,  and  she  to  her  nest. 

23.  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 

24.  O  Linden  trees,  whose  branches  high 
Shut  out  the  noontide's  sultry  sky, 
Throwing  a  shadow,  cool  and  dim, 
Along  the  meadow's  grassy  rim. 

25.  Ye  mariners  of  England, 
That  guard  our  native  seas, 

Whose  flag  has  braved  a  thousand  years 
The  battle  and  the  breeze. 

26.  When  icicles  hang  by  the  wall, 

And  Dick,  the  shepherd,  blows  his  nail, 
And  Tom  bears  logs  into  the  hall, 

And  milk  comes  frozen  home  in  pail, 
When  blood  is  nipped,  and  ways  be  foul, 
Then  nightly  sings  the  staring  owl. 

The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter. 

(An  expression  which  is  not  a  sentence  may  also  begin  with  a  capital 
letter  when  standing  alone.) 

Exercise. 

Write  five  sentences  about  George  Washington  :  five  about  your  last 
holiday ;  five  about  snow.  Write  five  expressions  that  are  not  sentences. 


USES   OF  SENTENCES  15 

5.     USES  OF  SENTENCES. 
Exercise. 

Write  five  sentences  asking  questions ;  five  giving  commands ;  five 
stating  facts. 

Sentences  may  be  used  :  — 

a.  To  ask  questions. 

b.  To  make  statements. 

c.  To  give  commands. 

The  battle  raged  fiercely. 
Who  won  ? 
Do  not  ask. 

Which  of  these  sentences  asks  a  question  ?     Which  ex- 
presses a  command  ?     Which  states  a  fact  ? 

According  to  their  uses  sentences  are  called :  — 

a.  Interrogative  sentences. 

b.  Declarative  sentences. 

c.  Imperative  sentences. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  asks  a  question. 

EXAMPLES,     i.  Are  you  coming  with  me? 

2.  When  is  the  train  due? 

3.  Do  you  see  yonder  cloud? 

4.  With  whom  were  you  speaking? 

5.  What  shall  I  render  to  my  God 
For  all  his  gifts  to  me  ? 

A  question  mark,  called  an  interrogation  point  (?),  is 
usually  placed  after  an  interrogative  sentence. 

Exercise. 

Write  three  interrogative  sentences  about  horses ;    two  beginning 
with  why ;  two   beginning  with  when ;   two   beginning  with  where ; 


1 6  THE   SENTENCE 

two  beginning  with  how,  two  beginning  with  will;  two  beginning 
with  do ;  two  beginning  with  may ;  two  beginning  with  are ;  two  be- 
ginning with  who;  two  beginning  with  whom;  two  beginning  with  to 
which  ;  and  two  beginning  vrithfrom  which. 

Mention  ten  words  which  you  have  used  at  the  beginning  of  inter- 
rogative sentences.  Mention  five  other  words  which  you  might  have 
so  used. 


A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  makes  a  statement. 

EXAMPLES.     The  President  sent  a  message  to  Congress. 
Rome  was  not  built  in  a  day. 
Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 
The  war  is  ended. 
The  sun  is  the  source  of  heat. 
A  city  is  a  collection  of  many  people. 

A  period  (•)   is  usually  placed  after  a  declarative 
sentence. 

Exercise. 

Write  three  declarative  sentences  about  roses ;  three  about  lions ; 
three  about  icebergs. 


An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  command,  an  entreaty, 
or  a  request. 

EXAMPLES.     Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 
Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow. 
Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death  ! 
Let  her  own  works  praise  her  in  the  gates. 
Study  diligently,  if  you  would  succeed. 

A  period  is  usually  placed  after  an  imperative  sentence. 

Exercise. 

Write  three  imperative  sentences  about  a  penknife ;  two  addressed 
to  a  servant ;  two  addressed  to  a  dog  ;  two  beginning  with  please ;  two 
beginning  with  let. 


USES    OF  SENTENCES  I/ 

How  bravely  they  fought !        Alas  !  must  they  die  ! 
They  are  heroes.  They  must. 

Surrender ! 

Which  of  these  sentences  indicate  excitement  or  strong 
feeling  ? 

According  to  the  manner  of  their  expression,  sentences 
may  be  pure  or  exclamatory. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  betrays  excitement  or  strong 
feeling  in  the  speaker. 

EXAMPLES.     Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink  ! 
How  sour  this  apple  is  ! 
Thank  God  I  am  an  American  ! 
Must  I  do  all  that ! 

An  exclamation  point  ( ! )  is  placed  after  every  exclam- 
atory sentence,  ivhethcr  it  is  declarative,  interrogative, 
or  imperative. 

Exercise. 

Write  three  exclamatory  sentences  about  the  weather;  two  betray- 
ing sorrow  ;  two  betraying  joy  ;  two  betraying  anger. 


Every  sentence  must  be  declarative,  imperative,  or  inter- 
rogative, and  no  simple  sentence  can  belong  to  two  of  these 
classes  at  the  same  time.  For  instance,  an  interrogative 
sentence  cannot  be  at  the  same  time  a  declarative  sentence. 

The  rain  falls  fast. 

How  dark  it  grows  ! 

Is  the  wind  blowing  ?  Come  in. 

Doesn't  it  blow  hard  !  Come  quickly  ! 

But  a  sentence  which  is  declarative,  interrogative,  or  im- 
perative, may  at  the  same  time  be  exclamatory. 

P.  C.  GRAM.  —  2 


18  THE   SENTENCE 

Thus  a  sentence  may  be  :  — 

a.  Pure  declarative. 
EXAMPLE.     It  is  warm. 

b.  Exclamatory  declarative. 
EXAMPLE.     How  warm  it  is  ! 

c.  Pure  interrogative. 
EXAMPLE.    Must  I  go  ? 

d.  Exclamatory  interrogative. 
EXAMPLE.     And  must  this  body  die  ! 

e.    Pure  imperative. 
EXAMPLE.     Do  not  interrupt  the  speaker. 

/.    Exclamatory  imperative. 
EXAMPLE.     Down,  slave,  and  beg  for  mercy  ! 

Exercise. 
Tell  fully  what  kind  of  sentence  each  of  the  following  is  :  — 

1 .  How  provoking  you  are  ! 

2.  The  snow  falls. 

3.  Speak  more  slowly. 

4.  Oh,  where  can  rest  be  found  ? 

5.  Come  one,  come  all. 

6.  Up,  comrades,  up  and  face  the  foe  ! 

7.  May  I  again  behold  it  ? 

8.  Go  and  rejoice. 

9.  Alas,  but  you  must  take  him  again  ! 

10.  Sleep,  sleep,  mine  Holy  One. 

11.  I  cannot  sing  the  old  songs. 

12.  What  a  noise  you  make  ! 

13.  Do  you  ride  the  bicycle  ? 

14.  Do  I  ride  ! 

15.  Help  me  to  mount. 

1 6.  Look  out  ! 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  tell  what  kind  of  sentence 
each  is :  — 


THE    TYPICAL   SENTENCE  1 9 

1.  Ring  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wild  sky 

2.  Gather  ye  rosebuds  while  ye  may 

3.  Oh,  that  those  lips  had  language 

4.  Why  sits  she  thus  in  solitude 

5.  Come  into  the  garden,  Maud 

6.  What  a  rare  fellow  you  are,  Adam 

7.  Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 
Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime 

8.  He  was  disturbed  by  the  sound  of  approaching  footsteps 

6.   THE   TYPICAL   SENTENCE. 

From  a  page  in  your  Reader  or  History  select  the 
declarative,  interrogative,  and  imperative  sentences.  Of 
which  class  do  you  find  the  greatest  number  ? 

It  is  warm. 
Is  it  warm  ? 

What  kind  of  sentence  is  each  of  these  ?  Do  they  differ 
in  the  words  used  ?  in  the  order  of  the  words  ?  in  punctua- 
tion ?  ^l_M1  U 

Children,  obey  me. 
Children  obey  me. 

What  kind  of  sentence  is  each  of  these  ?     How  do  they 

differ? 

It  is  very  warm. 

How  warm  it  is  ! 

What  kind  of  sentence  is  each  of  these  ?  How  do  they 
differ? 

The  pure  declarative  sentence  differs  from  the  other 
kinds  of  sentences  chiefly  in  the  arrangement  of  its  words 
or  in  its  punctuation,  and  most  things  that  are  true  of 
it  are  true  of  all  sentences.  Pure  declarative  sentences 
are  besides  much  more  commonly  employed  than  any 
other  kind.  For  these  reasons  we  may  regard  the  pure 
declarative  as  the  typical  sentence. 


20  THE   SENTENCE 

Exercise. 

Write  a  pure  declarative  sentence  containing  the  same  related  ideas 
as  each  of  the  following :  — 

1.  Pull  for  the  shore,  sailors. 

2.  Does  the  wind  blow  ? 

3.  What  mean  those  sounds? 

4.  How  the  wind  blows  ! 

5 .  Sing  loud  and  clear  ! 

6.  Would 'ye  look  for  greener  graves  ! 

7.  Did  your  brother  come  alone  ? 

7.   MIXED  SENTENCES. 

You  are  not  tired,  are  you  ? 

Write  the  two  thoughts  contained  in  this  sentence  in 
two  separate  sentences.  These  thoughts  are  so  closely 
related  that  they  are  expressed  in  one  sentence,  though 
the  expression  of  each  thought  standing  alone  would  be  a 
sentence  itself.  What  kind  of  sentence  would  express  the 
first  thought  ?  What  kind  would  express  the  second  ? 

Are  you  tired  ?  for  you  look  so. 
Describe  this  sentence. 

When  two  or  more  expressions  which,  standing  alone,  would  be  sen- 
tences, are  so  closely  related  that  all  are  required  to  complete  the  thought 
and  thus  form  but  one  sentence,  each  of  the  expressions  is  called  a  clause. 

A  clause,  like  a  sentence,  may  be  declarative,  interroga- 
tive, or  imperative. 

What  are  the  clauses  in  each  of  the  sentences  described 
above  ?  What  kind  of  clause  is  each  ?  Though  no  sen- 
tence, as  a  whole,  can  be  both  declarative  and  interrogative, 
yet  a  sentence  may  consist  of  unlike  clauses. 

Come  with  me,  won't  you  ? 
Of  what  kinds  of  clauses  does  this  sentence  consist? 


MIXED  SENTENCES  21 

A  sentence  composed  of  unlike  clauses  is  a  mixed  sentence. 

A  mixed  sentence  should  be  followed  by  the  punctua- 
tion mark  suitable  to  its  last  part. 

A  punctuation  marlc  should  be  placed  between  the 
clauses  of  a  mixed,  sentence.  This  may  be  a  comma  (,), 
a  semicolon  (;),  an  interrogation  point,  or  an  exclama- 
tion point,  but  not  a  period. 

Exercise. 
Tell  fully  what  kind  of  sentence  each  of  the  following  is  :  — 

1 .  Telegraph  me  on  your  arrival,  will  you  ? 

2.  That's  what  you  would  like  to  be  doing,  is  it? 

3.  We  are  not  cowards,  are  we? 

4.  Are  you  sleepy  ?  are  you  cold  ?  are  you  hungry  ?  for  you  look  worn 

out. 

5.  Be  quiet!  there  is  no  danger. 

6.  Blow  wind!  come  wrack!  at  least  we1!!  die  with  harness  on  our 

back. 

7.  Beware,  my  lord,  of  jealousy  ; 

It  is  the  green-eyed  monster  which  doth  mock  the  food  it  feeds  on. 

8.  Give  me  three  grains  of  corn,  mother, 
Only  three  grains  of  corn  ; 

It  will  keep  the  little  life  I  have 
Till  the  coming  of  the  morn. 

9 .  Up  !  up  !  my  friend,  and  clear  your  looks  ; 
Why  all  this  toil  and  trouble  ? 

10.    Defer  not  till  to-morrow  to  be  wise ; 

To-morrow's  sun  to  thee  may  never  rise. 

Punctuate  the  following  :  — 

1 .  Why  are  you  so  silent 

2.  He  is  your  brother  is  he 

3.  How  silent  you  are 

4.  Pull  down  that  flag 

5.  The  band  is  playing  "  Yankee  Doodle  "  is  it  not 

6.  The  wind  blew  a  gale 

7-    Do  hush  your  mother  is  ill 

8.   Will  you  be  there  at  the  appointed  hour 


22  THE   SENTENCE 

9.    Go  away  I  am  busy 
10.    Bring  your  book  to  me 
n.    Summer  comes  with  flower  and  bee 
Where  is  my  brother  gone 

12.  Oh  that  those  lips  had  language 

13.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again 

14.  Throw  physic  to  the  dogs  I'll  none  of  it 

15.  Thou  canst  not  say  I  did  it  never  shake 
Thy  gory  locks  at  me 

1 6.  Aye  tear  her  tattered  ensign  down 
Long  has  it  waved  on  high 

17.  You  hear  that  boy  laughing  you  think  he's  all  fun 
But  the  angels  laugh  too  at  the  good  he  has  done 
The  children  laugh  loud  as  they  troop  to  his  call 
The  poor  man  that  knows  him  laughs  loudest  of  all 

Write  and  punctuate  five  mixed  sentences  each  containing  an  im- 
perative and  a  declarative  clause ;  five,  each  containing  a  declarative 
and  an  interrogative  clause;  two,  each  containing  an  imperative  and 
an  interrogative  clause. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  clauses  which  are  joined  shall  be 
of  different  kinds. 

//  two  declarative  or  two  imperative  clauses  are  united 
in  one  sentence,  without  a  connecting  word,  a  semicolon 
is  usually  placed  between  them. 

EXAMPLES.     I  knew  him ;  he  knew  not  me. 

Come  kneel  at  my  feet ;  look  right  in  my  eyes. 

If  several  short  clauses  are  united  in  one  sentence 
they  are  usually  separated  by  commas. 

EXAMPLES.     I  saw  him,  he  saw  me,  and  you  saw  us  both. 
I  came,  I  saw.  I  conquered. 


CHAPTER   II.  —  CLASSIFICATION   OF   ELEMENTS 
ACCORDING   TO   USE. 

SYNOPSIS. 

A  sentence  may  be  divided  into  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

The  predicate  may  consist  of  two  parts  :  the  asserter,  or  copula,  and 
the  complement. 

The  predicate  base  may  consist  of  one  word,  which  represents  both 
the  base  of  the  complement  and  the  asserter. 

A  word  that  represents  doing,  having,  or  being,  is  a  verb. 

A  modifier  of  a  subject  is  called  an  adjective  modifier. 

Complements  which  describe  or  identify  the  subject  are  adjective. 

An  objective  element  receives  the  action  expressed  in  the  verb. 

Any  other  modifier  of  a  verb  is  adverbial. 

The  essential  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  substantive  (subject) 
and  predicative  (predicate)  elements,  the  latter  including  the  asserted 
adjective  element. 

The  accessory  elements  are  adjective,  objective,  and  adverbial. 

8.    SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

Chalk  is  white. 

The  little  red  apple  is  very  sweet. 

One  of  these  assertions  is  made  about  cJialk  ;  the  other 
assertion  is  made  about  the  little  red  apple. 

In  every  declarative  sentence  there  is  a  word  or  group 
of  words  about  which  an  assertion  is  made. 

The  word,  or  group  of  words,  representing  that  about  which  the 
assertion  is  made  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

EXAMPLES.     This  rose  is  red. 
My  clock  is  fast. 

The  clock  on  the  mantle  is  slow. 
23 


24  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

Exercise. 
Write  ten  sentences,  and  underline  the  subject  of  each. 


Chalk  is  white. 

My  red  purse  is  lost. 

The  boys  are  coming  to  see  us  to-day. 

In  the  first  sentence,  white  is  asserted  of  chalk ;  in  the 
second,  lost  is  asserted  of  my  red  purse  ;  in  the  third,  com- 
ing to  see  us  to-day  is  asserted  of  the  boys. 

In  every  declarative  sentence  there  is  a  word  or  group 
of  words  representing  that  which  is  asserted  of  the 
subject. 

The  chalk  is  white. 
I  am  tired. 
I  have  spoken. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  is  asserts  white  of  the 
chalk ;  in  the  second,  am  asserts  tired  of  /;  in  the  third, 
have  asserts  spoken  of  /. 

In  every  declarative  sentence  there  is  a  word  or  a  group 
of  words  which  asserts. 

That  which  is  asserted  of  the  subject,  together  with  that  which 
asserts,  is  called  the  predicate  of  the  sentence. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  the  part  which  is 
asserted  and  the  part  which  asserts :  — 

1.  The  boy  is  good.  3.    The  boy  is  my  cousin. 

2.  The  boy  is  a  pupil.  4.    John  was  very  industrious. 


SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE  2$ 

5.  The  poor  boy  seems  very  tired. 

6.  The  water  is  cool. 

7.  The  cool  water  is  running. 

8.  The  winter  will  be  coming  very  soon. 

9.  Charles  was  studying  very  industriously. 
10.  The  wagon  was  struck  by  an  engine. 

n.  The  examples  were  done  in  five  minutes. 


Are  you  indignant  ? 

In  this  sentence  an  inquiry  is  made  about  yon ;  you  is 
the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Indignant  is  the  idea  whose 
relation  to  the  subject  is  inquired  about.  It  corresponds 
to  the  asserted  part  of  the  predicate  of  the  declarative 
sentence.  Are  makes  the  inquiry.  It  corresponds  to  the 
asserter. 

Children,  be  silent. 

In  this  sentence  a  command  is  made  to  children ;  chil- 
dren is  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Silent  represents  the 
condition  which  is  commanded  of  children.  It  corresponds 
to  the  asserted  part  of  the  predicate  of  a  declarative  sen- 
tence. Be  makes  the  command.  It  corresponds  to  the 
asserter. 

Every  interrogative  or  imperative  sentence  is  composed 
of  subject  and  predicate.  Just  as  the  predicate  of  a  de- 
clarative sentence  asserts  something  of  the  subject,  so 
the  predicate  of  an  interrogative  sentence  inquires  about 
the  subject,  and  the  predicate  of  an  imperative  sentence 
demands  or  requests  something  of  the  subject.  In  this 
book  we  use  the  word  assert  to  mean  assert,  or  in- 
quire, or  command,  and  asserter  to  mean  that  which 
asserts,  inquires,  or  commands,  and  assertion  to  mean  also 
inquiry  and  command. 


26  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

If  the  sentence  Children,  be  silent,  had  been  addressed 
to  the  children  without  mentioning  them,  the  command 
would  have  been  Be  silent,  in  which  case  the  subject 
would  be  not  mentioned,  but  understood. 

In  like  manner,  the  declarative  sentence  Thank  you 
means  /  thank  you  ;  the  subject,  /,  though  not  expressed, 
is  understood  by  the  hearer. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  entire  subject  and  the  entire  predicate  of  each  sentence 
given  below.  Separate  each  predicate  into  two  parts,  —  the  part  asserted 
and  the  asserter. 

asserter.          asserted 

EXAMPLE.     That  dog        is        very  fierce". 

subj  pred. 

1 .  This  watch  is  pretty. 

2.  My  gold  watch  is  ticking. 

3.  I  was  humming  in  school. 

4.  I  am  tired  of  the  lesson 

5 .  My  neighbor  was  riding. 

6.  The  day  is  fair. 

7.  Was  yesterday  cloudy  ? 

8.  I  was  detained  by  the  teacher. 

9.  The  letter  was  written  yesterday. 

10.  I  have  caught  a  large  fish. 

11.  Be  careful. 

12.  The  large  black  dog  is  running  in  the  garden. 

13.  My  brother  has  gone  to  Boston. 

14.  Are  you  going  with  him? 

15.  The  wagons  were  overturned  at  the  bridge. 

1 6.  The  early  bird  is  a  wise  fellow. 

17.  Many  spring  blossoms  are  frozen. 

1 8.  The  worm  was  caught  by  the  early  bird. 

19.  Was  the  worm  wise? 

20.  The  small  brown  book  is  lying  on  the  table. 

21.  Be  cautious,  little  worm. 

22.  Mary  and  John  were  reading. 

23.  A  pair  of  horses  were  running  away. 


SUBJECT  BASE  27 

9.     THE  SUBJECT   BASE. 

A  fine  view  of  the  harbor  was  obtained. 

Viezv  is  the  base  of  the  subject ;  it  is  modified  by  the 
words  a  and  fine,  and  by  the  group  of  words,  of  the  harbor. 
The  base  of  the  subject  is  that  part  which  is  modified  by 
the  rest  of  the  entire  subject. 

The  big  boy  who  recited  so  well  received  the  prize. 

The  subject  base,  boy,  is  modified  by  the  words  the  and 
big,  and  by  the  group  of  words,  who  recited  so  well. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  base  of  the  subject  in  each  of  these  sentences,  and  tell 
whether  the  modifiers  are  words  or  groups  of  words  :  ~ 

1.  A  large  ship  was  driven  ashore. 

2.  A  good  conscience  will  make  a  happy  man. 

3.  A  very  high  wind  shook  the  windows  violently. 

4.  Tall  trees  grow  in  the  forest. 

5.  Are  very  large  hats  worn  now? 

6.  Finely  powdered  sugar  is  used  in  making  candy. 

7.  A  bright  and  joyous  procession  of  children  danced  gayly  along 

the  road,  when  the  bells  pealed. 

8.  The  man  who  is  not  elated  by  success  possesses  true  fortitude  of 

mind. 

9.  Large  red  apples  hang  upon  the  branches. 

10.  Fools  who  came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray. 

11.  The  vessel  on  which  we  sailed  was  commanded  by  Captain  Richard 

Pike. 

12.  The  barking  of  the  dogs  roused  the  people. 

13.  Poor  Jack  fell  to  the  ground. 

14.  True  beauty  dwells  in  deep  retreats. 

15.  The  stars  of  midnight  shone  brightly  on  the  scene. 

1 6.  The  man  who  is  honest  is  always  respected. 

17.  A  fair  little  girl  was  sitting  under  a  tree. 

1 8.  The  heavily  laden  train  was  rolling  into  the  station. 


28  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 


10.     PARTS  OF    THE   PREDICATE  — ASSERTER   (COPULA)  AND 
COMPLEMENT. 

That  red  apple  is  very  sweet. 

That  red  apple  is  the  entire  subject  of  this  sentence ; 
apple  is  the  base  of  the  subject ;  tJiat  and  red  are  modifiers 
of  apple,  used  to  tell  which  apple  is  very  sweet.  Is  very 
sweet  is  the  entire  predicate  of  this  sentence ;  is  siveet  is 
the  base  of  the  predicate ;  very  sweet  expresses  the  entire 
idea  asserted  of  that  red  apple ;  sweet  is  the  base  of  the 
idea  ;  very  is  a  modifier  of  sweet ;  is  is  the  asserter. 

»  Exercise. 

Select  the  entire  subjects  of  the  sentences  that  follow;  select  the 
base  of  each  subject  and  name  each  of  its  modifiers. 

Select  the  base  of  each  idea  asserted  of  the  subject,  and  tell  its 
modifiers. 

1.  Some  autumn  leaves  are  brown. 

2.  Many  autumn  leaves  are  very  dark. 

3.  The  bright  spring  grass  is  light  green. 

4.  Are  the  leaves  of  the  fir  tree  very  dark  green? 

5.  The  new  house  is  rather  inconvenient. 

6.  Men  of  Company  A,  be  steady  in  your  aim. 

7.  The  little  boys  might  be  more  quiet. 

8.  The  new  wagon  was  badly  broken. 

9.  The  old  oak  tree  is  very  unsteady. 

10.  Is  the  new  dress  dark  blue? 

11.  The  lost  book  was  entirely  new. 

12.  The  broken  wagon  was  soon  mended. 

13.  The  new  play  is  very  interesting. 

14.  An  entire  day  was  lost  in  the  search. 

15.  Those  among  the  audience  who  do  not  hear  well  may  come  up  to 

the  front. 

1 6.  That  sort  of  person  is  often  in  trouble. 

17.  When  will  the  new  programme  begin? 

Name  the  entire  predicate  in  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences. 


PARTS   OF   THE  PREDICATE  29 

It  has  been  shown  that  a  sentence  consists  of  two  parts, 
a  subject  and  a  predicate  ;  and  also  that  the  predicate  may 
consist  of  two  parts,  the  asserter  and  that  which  is  as- 
serted. Since  the  asserter  couples  the  thing  asserted  to 
the  subject,  it  is  often  called  the  copula,  a  word  which 
means  to  couple  or  unite,  and  since  the  asserted  part  com- 
pletes the  predicate,  it  is  often  called  the  complement  of 
the  predicate.  That  which  is  asserted  is  also  an  attribute 
of  the  subject.  It  may  be  called  either  a  complement  of 
the  predicate  or  an  attribute  of  the  subject. 

The  asserter,  or  copula,  is  that  part  of  a  predicate  which  asserts  its 
complement  of  the  subject. 

EXAMPLE.     I  am  strong. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  entire  subject,  the  entire  predicate,  the  asserter,  and  the 
entire  complement  or  attribute  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  spring  weather  is  approaching. 

2.  Has  the  winter  gone? 

3.  Our  work  for  to-day  is  almost  finished. 

4.  The  melancholy  days  are  come. 

5.  The  first  day  of  June  was  perfect. 

6.  The  long  vacation  is  approaching  rapidly. 

7.  The  children  are  waiting  patiently. 

8.  Mary,  be  ready  very  early. 

9.  In  every  man's  heart  is  a  holy  city. 

10.    A  hot  day  was  fading  into  a  warm  night. 

11.     MODIFIED  ASSERTERS   AND   COMPLEMENTS. 

It  has  been  seen  that  a  subject  may  consist  of  a  base 
and  modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.  The  small  clock  which  ticks  so  fast  is  a  good  time- 
keeper. 

The  small  clock  which  ticks  so  fast  is  the  entire  subject,  of  which 
clock  is  the  base. 


3<D  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

It  has  also  been  seen  that  the  complement  of  a  predi- 
cate, or  that  part  which  is  asserted,  may  contain  modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.  Our  caller  was  a  tall  gentleman  having  side  whiskers 
and  wearing  a  military  coat. 

The  base  of  this  complement  is  gentleman,  modified  by  a,  tall, 
having  side  whiskers,  and  wearing  a  military  coat. 

An  asserter  (copula)  also  may  consist  of  more  than  one 
word. 

EXAMPLES.     I  may  be  at  home  to-morrow. 

The  train  should  have  been  started  an  hour  ago. 
The  lamp  had  been  lighted  for  some  time. 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  which  part  of  such  an  asserter 
is  the  base  and  which  words  are  modifiers,  so  the  entire 
asserter  is  usually  considered  as  one  united  whole. 

EXAMPLE.     I  shall  be  happy  when  my  work  is  finished. 

Shall  be  happy  when  my  work  is  finished  is  the  entire  predicate  ;  its 
base  is  shall  be  happy,  of  which  shall  be  is  the  asserter  and  happy  the 
complement.  The  predicate  base  shall  be  happy  is  modified  by  the 
expression  when  my  work  is  finished. 

But  there  are  instances  when   an    asserter   contains  a 
word  which  is  very  plainly  a  modifier. 
EXAMPLE.     I  shall  soon  be  a  sergeant. 

Shall  soon  be  a  sergeant  is  the  entire  predicate,  of  which  shall  soon 
be  is  the  asserter  and  a  sergeant  the  complement.  Shall  be  sergeant 
is  the  base  of  the  predicate,  shall  be  being  the  asserter,  modified  by  soon ; 
and  sergeant  being  the  base  of  the  complement,  modified  by  a. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  predicate  bases  of  the  following  sentences  and  separate 
each  into  asserter  and  complement,  telling  which  asserters  consist  of 
more  than  one  word  :  — 

1 .  John  was  worried  by  the  affair. 

2.  The  messenger  may  be  coming  now. 


KINDS   OF  COMPLEMENTS  31 

3.  Will  the  news  be  announced  in  the  papers? 

4.  I  have  been  annoyed  by  the  false  reports. 

5.  We  shall  be  happy  to  make  her  acquaintance. 

6.  Mary,  be  prepared  to  go  at  a  moment's  notice. 

7.  I  shall  have  been  walking  for  two  hours. 

8.  Washington  is  a  beautiful  city. 

9.  Are  many  persons  employed  in  the  New  England  factories? 

10.  How  long  have  the  children  been  gone? 

11.  The  children  have  been  gone  three  weeks. 

12.     KINDS   OF  COMPLEMENTS. 

The  boy  was  John. 

The  lady  is  my  teacher. 

The  building  is  Grace  Church. 

In  the  first  sentence,  was  asserts  John  of  the  boy :  the 
predicate  tells  who  the  boy  was.  In  the  second,  is  asserts 
my  teacher  of  the  lady:  the  predicate  tells  who  the  lady  is. 
In  the  third  sentence,  is  asserts  Grace  Church  of  the  build- 
ing: the  predicate  tells  what  the  building  is. 

The  predicate  may  tell  who  or  what  the  subject  is ;  that  is,  it  may 
assert  the  identity  of  the  subject. 

Exercise. 

Assert  of  each  group  of  words  given  below  an  idea  which  tells  who 
or  what  it  is,  or  identifies  it ;  as,  My  cousin  is  Henry  Clark. 

1.  The  old  man  6.    These  books 

2.  The  house  on  the  hill  7.   Those  gentlemen 

3.  My  brother  8.    The  young  child 

4.  Our  neighbor  9.    My  father 

5.  These  boys  10.    The  boy  in  the  third  grade 

11.  The  President  of  the  United  States 

12.  The  hero  of  the  War  with  Spain 

13.  The  largest  city  in  the  world 

14.  The  line  between  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire 

15.  The  pupil  on  my  left 


32  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

Some  girls  are  tall. 
The  little  boy  is  ill. 

Are  asserts  tall  of  some  girls.     Is  asserts  ill  of  the  little, 
boy. 

The  predicate  may  assert  a  quality  or  condition  of  the  subject. 

Exercise. 

Make  sentences  asserting  qualities  or  conditions  of  the  subjects  given 
below :  — 

1 .  The  woods  6.    John 

2.  Many  children  7.    The  poor  man 

3.  Yonder  house  8.    Flowers 

4.  The  school  children  9.    Young  children 

5.  Our  horse  10.   The  apples 


The  girls  were  weeping. 
The  little  boys  are  playing. 

Weeping  is  asserted  of  the  girls  by  the  asserter  were. 
What  is  asserted  about  the  little  boys  ? 

The  predicate  may  assert  an  action  performed  by  the  subject. 

EXAMPLES.     The  faithful  boys  are  learning. 
My  friends  may  be  coming. 
The  poor  creatures  must  be  fighting. 

Exercise. 
Assert  acts  performed  by  the  following :  — 

1 .  The  young  robin  6.    The  minister  of  our  church 

2.  My  little  kitten  7.    Victoria,  Queen  of  England 

3.  The  boys  8.   John  and  Hortense 

4.  Charitable  people  9.    My  dog  Carlo 

5.  George  Washington  10.    Your  brother 

Assert  acts  that  have  been  performed  by  the  subjects  in  the  exercise 
above.     EXAMPLE.     The  young  robin  has  sung. 


KINDS   OF  COMPLEMENTS  33 

The  boy  is  loved. 

The  bad  boys  were  punished. 

Is  asserts  loved  of  the  boy  ;  that  is,  the  predicate  asserts 
that  the  subject  receives  the  action.  Punished  is  asserted 
of  the  bad  boys  by  the  asserter  were. 

The  predicate  may  assert  an  action  received  by  the  subject. 

Exercise. 
Assert  actions  received  by  the  following  subjects  :  — 

1 .  The  robin's  nest  5 .    The  city 

2.  The  good  ship  Royal  George          6.    The  tower  of  the  church 

3.  The  letter  7.    Many  books 

4.  Lisbon  8.   The  peach  blossoms 

Exercise. 

Tell  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  whether  the  complement 
indicates  identity,  description,  action  performed  by  the  subject,  or 
action  received  by  the  subject :  — 

1.  The  city  of  Lisbon  was  once  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

2.  The  man  who  proposed  the  plan  was  Alexander  Hamilton. 

3.  The  clouds  in  the  east  were  heavy  and  dark. 

4.  A  procession  of  ragged  bootblacks  was  moving  down  the  street. 

5.  I  am  well  and  happy. 

6.  Are  you  well  and  happy  ? 

7.  Large  numbers  of  birds  were  killed  by  the  storm. 

8.  The  man  elected  to  the  position  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

9.  I  am  reading  the  life  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

10.  Many  books  were  read  by  the  pupils. 

11.  The  boy  has  read  Jthe  book. 

12.  To-morrow  will  be  fine,  I  think. 

13.  Was  he  driving  a  pair  of  spirited  horses  ? 

14.  Winter  has  gone. 

15.  The  birds  have  built  their  nest  in  the  tree. 

1 6.  Soldiers,  be  brave  and  patriotic. 

17.  The  apples  are  sound. 

18.  Grapes  are  ripening  in  the  sun. 

p.  c.  GRAM.  —  3 


34  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

13.    THE  VERB. 

The  dog  is  barking  fiercely. 

Is  barking  is  the  predicate  base  of  this  sentence.  It 
consists  of  two  parts  :  barking,  which  represents  the  action 
asserted  of  the  subject ;  and  is,  which  asserts. 

The  dog  barks  fiercely. 

Barks  is  the  predicate  base  of  this  sentence.  The  two 
parts  of  which  every  predicate  base  must  consist  are  con- 
tained in  the  word  barks.  It  represents  the  action  asserted 
of  the  subject,  and  also  asserts  it. 

Exercise. 

In  the  same  way  tell  about  the  predicate  base  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences :  — 

1.  The  cow  is  eating  hay.  5.   The  cow  eats  hay. 

2.  You  are  running.  6.    You  run. 

3.  He  is  walking  slowly.  7.    He  walks  slowly. 

4.  The  men  are  working.  8.    The  men  work. 

Select  the  predicate  base  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  whether  the  action  asserted  and  its  assertion  are  contained  in  two 
parts  or  are  united  in  one  word  :  — 

1.  The  thrush  sings  with  a  soft  voice. 

2.  I  hear  the  thrush  singing  softly. 

3.  The  soft-voiced  thrush  is  singing  to  me. 


The  clerk  is  writing  well.  The  clerk  writes  well. 

The  clerk  was  writing.  The  clerk  wrote. 

In  each  of  the  above  sentences  an  action  is  asserted  of  the 
subject.  Name  the  action  which  is  asserted.  Tell  in  each 
case  what  office  is  performed  by  each  of  the  words  con- 
stituting the  predicate  base. 


THE    VERB  35 

The  wind  blows  fiercely. 
I  hear  a  loud  noise. 
The  lark  is  singing  sweetly. 

In  each  of  the  above  sentences  an  action  is  asserted  of 
the  subject. 

Those    words   that   represent   action    are   called   verbs. 
Select  the  verbs  in  the  sentences  above. 


The  boy  is  running  swiftly. 

Running  is  a  complement  base,  and,  as  it  represents 
action,  it  may  be  called  a  verbal  complement. 

The  boy  runs  swiftly. 

Runs  is  a  predicate  base,  and  as  it  both  represents  the 
action  which  is  asserted  of  the  subject  —  that  is,  takes  the 
place  of  the  verbal  complement,  —  and  asserts  —  that  is, 
takes  the  place  of  the  asserter,  —  it  may  be  called  a  predi- 
cate verb. 

A  verb  by  its  use  may  be  a  complement  asserted  of  the 
subject ;  or  by  the  way  it  is  used  it  may  combine  within 
itself  the  complement  and  the  asserter.  A  verb  which  is 
asserted  of  the  subject  is  a  verbal  complement  A  verb 
which  is  a  combined  complement  and  asserter  is  a  predi- 
cate verb. 

Exercise. 

Change  each  of  the  following  sentences,  making  the  predicate  base 
consist  of  a  predicate  verb  :  — 

1.  I  am  going  quickly.  6.  They  are  acting  like  men. 

2.  They  were  eating  candy.  7.  He  is  falling. 

3.  The  girl  is  writing  poorly.  8.  You  are  skating  too  far. 

4.  The  clerks  are  writing.  9.  The  boys  are  skating. 

5.  The  clerk  was  writing.  10.  The  men  are  chopping. 


36  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

In  each  of  these  ten  sentences  an  action  is  asserted  of 
the  subject.  What  word  expresses  the  action  ?  In  the 
sentences  The  clerk  writes,  The  clerk  wrote -,  tell  what  name 
is  given  to  writes  and  wrote,  and  what  each  of  these  words 
does.  Tell  the  time,  present  or  past,  that  is  represented 
by  each  predicate  verb  that  you  wrote  in  the  last  exercise, 
and  tell  how  many  things  each  predicate  verb  does.  (It 
stands  for  the  action  asserted  -of  the  subject,  asserts  it, 
and  represents  the  time  of  the  action. ) 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences. Tell  in  each  case  whether  the  predicate  base  consists  of  a 
predicate  verb  or  of  an  asserter  and  complement. 

1 .  Dogs  are  barking. 

2.  The  earth  is  wrapped  in  snow. 

3.  What  is  contained  in  air  ? 

4.  Fresh  air  contains  plenty  of  oxygen. 

5.  The  letter  was  written  by  a  lawyer. 

6.  I  found  one  man  among  a  thousand. 

7.  Make  it  well,  girls. 

8.  The  leaves  of  memory  seem  to  make 
A  mournful  rustling  in  the  dark. 

9.  The  night  shall  be  filled  with  music. 

10.  The  light  of  other  days  is  faded. 

11.  I  am  your  friend. 

12.  Are  you  my  friend? 

13.  We  have  been  friends  together 
In  sunshine  and  in  shade. 

14.  I  see  them  on  their  winding  way. 

15.  The  man  was  thrown  from  his  horse. 

1 6.  Write  well,  sir. 

17.  Does  he  write  well? 

18.  The  letter  is  written. 

To  have  originally  meant  to  hold,  which  implied  action  ; 
and  words  asserting  possession  are  also  called  verbs.  And 


THE  ADJECTIVE  ELEMENT  37 

many  words  which  tell  what  some  one  or  something  does, 
though  they  indicate  little  or  no  exertion,  are  really  of  the 
same  nature  as  action  words,  and  are  hence  called  verbs. 
EXAMPLES.     I  have  a  cold. 

The  crowd  stood  patiently. 

I  sat  by  the  fire. 

The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

Even  such  words  as  is,  are,  was,  which  express  merely 
being  or  existence,  are  usually  classed  as  verbs. 
EXAMPLE.     "I  think,  therefore  I  am." 
Words  that  represent  doing,  having,  or  being  are  called  verbs. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences.  Tell  whether  each  is  a 
verbal  complement  or  a  predicate  verb,  and  tell  why  each  is  a  verb. 

1.  I  own  no  house. 

2.  Foxes  have  holes  in  the  ground. 

3.  I  remained  silent. 

4.  The  snow  lies  on  the  ground. 

5.  The  birds  of  the  air  have  nests. 

6.  Drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

7.  These  short  bushes  have  many  beautiful  flowers. 

8.  Have  they  leaves  also  ? 

9.  A  large  gray  cat  lay  on  the  hearth. 

10.  Have  you  sung  also? 

1 1 .  The  river  Rhine  doth  wash  your  city  of  Cologne. 

12.  I  shall  light  a  candle  of  understanding  in  thine  heart. 

14.    SUBJECT   MODIFIERS. 
The  good  boy  who  studies  will  be  happy. 

Boy  is  the  base  of  the  entire  subject,  The  good  boy  ivho 
studies.  The,  good,  who  studies,  and  happy  are  all  modifiers 
of  the  subject  base,  describing  boy. 


38  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

The  modifier  of  an  ordinary  subject  base  is  an  adjective  modifier. 

Adjective  modifiers  generally  tell  what  kind,  which,  how 
many,  or  whose. 
What  kind  :          Beautiful  flowers  grow  by  the  brook. 

Sweet  oranges  grow  in  Florida. 

Charming  music  was  heard. 

Which  :  Those  roses  are  red. 

The  ship  that  sailed  a  month  ago  was  lost. 
The  book  of  poems  lay  on  the  table. 

How  many  :        Two  little  birds  sat  on  a  stone. 
Twelve  objects  make  a  dozen. 
Many  persons  witnessed  the  tragedy. 
Stars  without  number  illumine  the  sky. 

Whose  :  My  jacket  is  thick. 

The  wife  of  the  President  held  a  reception. 
John's  book  is  lost. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  adjective  modifiers  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
in  each  case  whether  the  modifier  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words,  and 
whether  its  relation  to  the  subject  base  is  assumed  or  asserted :  — 

1 .  The  man  on  the  horse  is  a  miller. 

2.  My  friend,  Mr.  Brown,  is  handsome. 

3.  Those  apples  in  the  basket  are  pippins. 

4.  The  trees  on  our  street  are  horse-chestnuts. 

5.  His  cousin,  who  left  town  yesterday,  was  bright  and  attractive. 

6.  Large  bunches  of  grapes  were  ripe. 

7.  Many  large  dogs  are  gentle. 

8.  Are  these  children  twins? 

9.  Two  men  who  passed  the  house  were  strangers. 

10.  The  book  which  I  lost  was  illustrated. 

11.  The  house  on  the  hill  is  old  and  forsaken. 

12.  Many  men  in  America  are  inventors. 

13.  Sudden  changes  are  disagreeable. 


OBJECTIVE  AND  ADVERBIAL   ELEMENTS  39 


15.  PREDICATE  MODIFIERS. 

A  verb  may  be  modified,  whether  it  is  used  as  predicate 
verb  or  as  verbal  complement. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  running  rapidly. 

The  man  struck  the  nail. 

The  clouds  hurried  across  the  sky. 

The  fence  was  buried  by  snowdrifts. 


I  wrote  a  long  letter. 

What  group  of  words  indicates  the  object  which  received 
the  action  asserted  of  the  subject  ? 

All  the  children  loved  their  teacher. 

What  group  of  words  indicates  who  received  the  feeling 
asserted  of  the  subject  ? 

That  which  limits  the  action  which  the  verb  expresses,  by  receiving 
it,  is  the  objective  modifier  of  the  verb,  called  generally  the  object  of  the 
verb. 


I  write  slowly. 

I  write  sometimes. 

I  am  writing  on  thin  paper. 

I  write  because  I  like  to. 

These  modifiers  of  the  verb  do  not  limit  the  action  by 
receiving  it,  but  modify  it  by  giving  the  manner,  time, 
place,  or  reason  of  its  performance. 

That  which  modifies  the  verb,  without  receiving  any  action,  is  called 
an  adverbial  modifier. 


40  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

Exercise. 

Tell  whether  the  underlined  modifiers  in  the  following  sentences  are 
objective  or  adverbial :  — 

1 .  A  cloud  floated  across  the  sky. 

i 

2.  It  dropped  rain  upon  the  earth. 

I  2 

3.  The  earth  welcomed  the  warm  rain  gladly. 

I  2 

4.  The  flowers  soon  raised  their  heads  when  they  felt  the  water  falling. 

~~~i  2 

5.  They  smiled,  for  they  were  refreshed. 

i 

Supply  adverbial  modifiers  to  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  supply  objects  wherever  possible  :  — 

1 .  The  boy  whistled  —  4.   They  ran  — 

2.  He  called  —  5.   He  rejoiced  — 

3.  His  companions  heard  —  6.  They  joined  — 


The  fire  destroyed  the  house. 
I  have  many  books. 

These  predicate  bases  represent  the  subject  as  acting 
or  having,  and  are  therefore  called  active.  What  are 
their  objective  modifiers  ? 

But  not  all  active  predicate  bases  need  take  objective 
modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.     The  baby  cried. 

An  adverbial  modifier  may  tell  anything  about  the  man- 
ner, or  time,  or  place,  or  cause  of  the  doing,  having,  or 
being  expressed  by  the  verb. 

How  :  The  man  spoke  earnestly. 

The  boy  studied  with  industry. 

The  boy  studied  as  if  he  were  in  earnest. 


ESSENTIAL   AND  ACCESSORY  ELEMENTS  41 

Where  :        The  President  lives  here. 

The  President  lives  in  Washington.  , 

The  President  lives  where  Congress  meets. 

When  :        The  capital  was  moved  then. 

The  capital  was  moved  in  the  year  1800. 

The  capital  was  moved  when  the  time  had  expired. 

Why  :  I  go  since  duty  calls  me. 

I  therefore  followed. 
I  followed  for  a  good  reason. 

Since  an  objective  modifier  receives  an  action  it  gener- 
ally represents  a  person  or  a  thing. 

EXAMPLE.     I  wrote  the  letter. 

The  letter,  which  receives  the  action,  is  a  thing. 

EXAMPLE.    Cain  killed  Abel. 

Abel,  who  receives  the  action,  is  a  person. 

But  any  expression  may  be  used  as  an  object. 

EXAMPLES.    He  dislikes  to  go  out  in  rainy  weather. 

They  do  not  know  whether  he  will  come  or  not. 

16.     ESSENTIAL  AND  ACCESSORY  ELEMENTS. 

A  sentence  must  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate ;  even 
the  imperative  sentences,  such  as  Be  still,  which  seem  to 
have  no  subjects,  really  give  the  command  to  some  one 
whose  name  is  understood  to  be  the  subject.  These  are 
the  necessary  parts,  or  elements,  of  the  sentence.  They 
are  called  essential  elements ;  the  subject  is  called  the 
substantive  element,  and  the  predicate  is  called  the  predi- 
cative element. 

But  it  is  only  the  base  of  each  of  these  elements  which 
is  really  essential.  The  adjective  modifiers  contained  within 


42  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

the  subject,  and  the  adverbial  and  objective  modifiers  con- 
tained within  the  predicate,  are  not  essential  to  the  exist- 
ence of  the  sentence ;  they  are  therefore  merely  helping  or 
accessory  elements. 


The  day  is  dark  and  dreary. 
This  day  is  Sunday. 

The  complement  of  a  predicate,  if  it  indicates  the  iden- 
tity of,  or  a  description  of,  the  subject,  is  really  an  ^ad- 
jective element ;  yet  it  is  also  a  necessary  part  of  the 
predicate.  It  is  therefore  not  an  accessory  element,  as 
is  the  adjective  modifier  which  is  contained  within  the 
subject,  and  whose  relation  to  the  subject  is  assumed. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  essential  elements  in  each  of  the  following  sentences ; 
give  the  base  of  .each  ;  and  show  which  elements  are  accessory  :  — 

1.  Will  the  day  be  bright? 

2.  Some  days  must  be  dark  and  dreary. 

3.  Fm  a  pilgrim,  Fm  a  stranger. 

4.  I  may  be  ready  by  noon. 

5 .  I  was  busy  all  the  morning. 

6.  I  wrote  a  composition  on  George  Washington. 

7.  Mrs.  Burnett  has  written  many  stories. 

8.  Mary  was  writing  when  I  called. 

9.  John  has  been  skating  since  luncheon. 

10.  We  may  skate  to-morrow  if  the  weather  is  fine. 

1 1 .  The  children  might  have  skated  yesterday. 

12.  We  may  drive  to-morrow  if  the  roads  are  good. 

13.  Sand  is  blown  about  the  desert  by  the  wind. 

14.  The  army  was  forced  to  surrender. 

15.  The  child  must  be  forced  to  give  attention. 

1 6.  Come,  children,  to  me. 

17.  General  Grant  received  orders  from  the  government  at  Washington. 

18.  Our  men  were  ordered  to  fire. 


ADVERBIAL    COMPLEMENTS  43 

19.  The  bridge  was  carried  away  during  the  freshet. 

20.  Spring  includes  three  months. 

21.  This  nation  owns  Alaska. 

22.  The  army  camped  by  the  river. 

23.  Where  did  we  rest? 

24.  We  sailed  across,  the  sea. 

25.  Beethoven  was  a  great  musician. 

26.  The  news  was 'carried  rapidly. 

27.  The  boy  hurt  his  feet. 

28.  The  Fourth  of  July  is  celebrated  all  over  the  country. 

29.  He  lifted  the  child  in  his  strong  arms. 

30.  Lotty  was  lifted  by  Adarrfs  strong  arms. 

17.    ADVERBIAL  COMPLEMENTS. 

There  remains  one  variety  of  predicate  about  which 
some  discussion  is  necessary. 

An  asserter  (copula)  may  be  used  to  assert  the  relation 
of  a  complement  which  represents  the  position  or  the  time 
of  the  subject. 

EXAMPLES,     i.   The  good  children  are  here. 

2.  These  birds  are  early. 

3.  The  sick  child  is  at  home. 

These  complements,  indicating  time  and  place,  must  be 
regarded  as  modifiers,  since  they  are  not  verbs.  The  ques- 
tion is,  what  do  they  modify  ?  They  can  be  used  to  modify 
a  subject,  bearing  then  an  assumed  relation. 

EXAMPLES,     i.    The  good  children  are  here. 
The  children  here  are  good. 

2.  Wise  birds  are  early. 
Early  birds  are  wise. 

3.  The  sick  child  is  at  home. 
The  child  at  home  is  sick. 


44  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING   TO    USE 

They  are  not,  as  complements,  really  descriptive  of  the 
subject  like  ordinary  adjective  complements,  but  are  re- 
strictive. Compare  the  examples  given  with  such  sen- 
tences as  — 

1.  The  good  children  live  here. 

2.  Wise  birds  rise  early. 

3.  The  sick  child  stays  at  home. 

In  all  these  cases  the  elements  of  time  or  place  are 
clearly  adverbial,  modifying  the  predicate  verbs  live,  rise, 
stays.  But  the  asserters  are  and  is  are  not  ordinarily  con- 
sidered predicate  verbs  to  be  modified  by  adverbial  ele- 
ments. The  truth  is,  however,  that  these  asserting  words 
used  as  copulas  were  formerly  predicate  verbs,  meaning 
lives,  breathes,  etc.,  but  have  almost  wholly  lost  their  old 
meanings,  because  of  their  use  to  assert  relation.  Many 
old  grammarians 'Consider  that  early,  here,  at  home,  used  as 
complements,  are  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  copula.  It  is, 
however,  better  to  treat  them  as  adjective  modifiers  of  the 
subject. 

By  one  view,  in  the  sentence  /  am  here,  am  is  a  predicate 
verb,  being  modified  by  the  adverbial  modifier  here.  By 
the  other  view,  here  is.  an  asserted  adjective  element,  being 
asserted  of  the  subject  by  the  asserter  am. 

Such  a  modifier  as  here  or  in  the  corner  is  often  placed 
after  the  subject  base  as  an  adjective  modifier. 

Exercise. 
Give  two  possible  views  of  the  predicates  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  book  was  there.  5.    They  were  here  in  December. 

2.  It  is  now  in  the  house.  6.    Were  you  at  home? 

3.  Spring  is  here.  7.    He  was  not  in  his  room. 

4.  The  travelers  are  in  Europe.  8.    God  is  in  the  tempest. 

An  adverbial  element  may  modify  a  verbal  complement,  or  a  predi- 
cate verb,  or  an  asserter. 


REVIEW 


45 


Elements 

of 
Sentences 


18.   REVIEW. 

Substantive 
Essential 
(Necessary) 


Predicative 


Accessory 
(Accompanying) 


Asserter  (copula) 

and  Complement 
[  Predicate  verb 
Modifiers  of  Substantive  — 

Assumed  Adjective 
Modifiers  of    J  Objective 
Predicative  1  Adverbial 


Example  in  analysis  :  — 

The  old  house  stands  alone  on  the  hill. 


Adj.  mod. 


2        3 
Adj.  mod. 
2 


4  5 

Subst.  base. 


Predicate  verb. 


Adv.  mod.     Adv.  mod. 


WHAT  AN  ELEMENT  IN  A  SENTENCE  SHOULD  BE  CALLED 
DEPENDS  ENTIRELY  ON  ITS  USE  IN  THE  SENTENCE.  An 
element  usually  used  as  a  subject  may  be  used  as  an  ad- 
jective modifier;  an  adjective  modifier  may  become  a  sub- 
stantive element.  The  uses  of  other  elements  can  be 
changed,  also.  The  question  to  be  decided  in  analyzing 
is  always,  For  what  is  this  word,  or  this  group  of  words, 
used?  The  answer  to  this  question  decides  what  it  shall 
be  called. 

Exercise. 

Analyze  the  following :  — 

1.  The  oil  in  the  lamp  mounts  high  into  the  wick. 

2.  The  perfectly  cold  night  was  quiet. 

3.  He  was  a  stalwart  knight. 

4.  His  clothes  were  patched  and  torn. 

5 .  Why  do  you  sing  ? 


46  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO    USE 

6.  He  rode  with  short  stirrups. 

7.  His  enemies  shall  lick  the  dust. 

8.  John  Lee  wore  an  old  drab  coat. 

9.  The  woods  tossed  their  branches  against  a  stormy  sky. 

10.  The  little  boy  told  the  story  well. 

11.  He  said,  "  Stay,  my  men." 

12.  Ben  Hur  answered,  "  I  am  the  son  of  Judah." 

13.  The  boy's  father  punished  him. 

14.  James  brought  it  to  me. 

1 5 .  Many  children  were  playing  on  the  lawn. 

1 6.  They  have  written  the  exercises  rapidly. 

17.  The  books  lay  on  the  grass  all  night. 

18.  A  hymn  was  played  on  the  organ. 

19.  The  church  was  cold. 

20.  In  India  along  the  Ganges  River  the  white  poppy  is  raised. 

21.  After  long  heavy  rains  some  rivers  become  so  high  that  they  over- 

flow their  banks. 

22.  The  lioness  when  hungry  will  watch  noiselessly  for  her  prey. 

23.  Arthur  did  not  pass  a  sleepless  night. 

24.  I  black  my  shoes  every  morning. 

25.  Where  is  my  mother? 

26.  Did  the  kettle  boil? 

27.  Where  can  rest  be  found? 

28.  What  does  little  birdie  say? 

29.  In  what  way  can  I  serve  you? 

30.  How  peaceful  was  the  day ! 

31.  Children,  listen  to  my  cry  ! 

32.  Why  do  we  mourn  departed  friends  ! 

33.  Under  what  circumstances  will  you  consent  to  my  request? 

Synthetic  Exercise. 
Write  sentences  according  to  the  following  analysis  :  — 

1.  Adj.  mod.     Subst.  base.    Pred.  base.    Adv.  mod. 

i  2  3  4 

2.  Adj.  mod.    Adj.  mod.     Subst.  base.    Pred.  base.    Adv.  mod. 

i  2  3  4  5 

3.  Subst.  base.    Pred.  base.    Obj.  mod.    Adv.  mod. 


CHAPTER   III.  —  CLASSIFICATION   OF   ELEMENTS 
ACCORDING   TO   STRUCTURE. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The  words  in  a  sentence  representing  the  ideas  which  are  related 
may  be  called  the  idea  words  of  the  sentence. 

The  words  in  a  sentence  expressing  the  relations  between  the  idea 
words  may  be  called  relation  words. 

An  element  whose  relation  to  its  principal  is  known  without  the 
use  of  a  relation  word  is  a  word  element ;  its  base  is  a  single  word. 

A  word  asserting  the  relation  of  a  subordinate  element  to  its  prin- 
cipal is  an  asserter ;  one  only  showing  the  relation  (if  the  subordinate 
element  is  not  a  clause)  is  a  preposition. 

An  element  consisting  of  an  idea  part  and  a  relation  part  (asserter 
or  preposition)  is  a  phrase. 

A  sentence  in  which  one  clause  forms  an  element  in  another  clause 
is  a  complex  sentence. 

The  relation  of  a  clause  element  to  the  principal  which  it  modifies  is 
generally  shown  by  a  relation  word  called  a  subordinate  connective. 

A  subordinate  connective  sometimes  performs  also  the  office  of  an 
idea  element  in  the  subordinate  clause. 


Section  I.  —  Word  and  Phrase  Elements. 
19.  IDEA  WORDS  AND  RELATION  WORDS. 

Five  regiments  of  cavalry  were  ordered  to  the  front. 
Five  is  related  to  regiments,  showing  how  many  regi- 
ments. Cavalry  is  related  to  regiments,  showing  what 
kind  of  regiments.  Ordered  is  related  to  regiments,  show- 
ing what  was  done  to  regiments.  The  front  is  related  to 
ordered.  What  does  it  show  ? 

47 


48  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

The  ideas  represented  in  a  sentence  are  related  to  one 
another.  Name  all  the  words  in  the  sentence  just  analyzed 
which  stand  for  these  related  ideas. 

Were  asserts  the  relation  of  ordered  to  regiments.  What 
word  shows  the  relation  of  cavalry  to  regiments  ?  What 
word  shows  the  relation  of  the  front  to  ordered? 

Though  any  word  may  be  said  to  represent  an  idea,  yet 
those  words  in  a  sentence  which  express  the  chief  ideas  — 
those  which  are  related  —  may  be  called  the  idea  words  of 
the  sentence.  Name  the  idea  words  in  the  sentence  at  the 
beginning  of  this  lesson. 

The  words  showing  the  relations  of  the  idea  words  to 
one  another  may  be  called  relation  words.  Name  the 
relation  words  in  the  sentence  at  the  beginning  of  this 
lesson.  Is  the  asserter  (copula)  mainly  an  idea  word  or 
a  relation  word  ? 

Exercise. 

Select  the  idea  words  and  the  relation  words  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

1.  Good  sons  are  generally  good  husbands. 

2.  Several  birds   with   bright  plumage  are  flying  over  the  green 
meadow. 

3.  Peace  of  mind  is  valuable. 

4.  Each  stroke  of  the  bell  fell  solemnly  on  his  ear. 

5.  One  deed  of  kindness  is  worth  ten  words  of  affection. 

20.  PRINCIPAL  AND  SUBORDINATE. 

What  is  the  base  of  an  element?     (p.  12.) 

These  very  small  boys  are  naughty. 

What  is  the  entire  subject  ?  What  is  the  base  of  the 
subject  ?  By  what  is  boys  modified  ? 

These  and  very  small  are  said  to  be  subordinate  to  boys, 


PHRASES  49 

and  boys  is  called  the  principal  to  which  these  modifiers 
are  subordinate.  Naughty  also  is  said  to  be  subordinate  to 
boys,  since  its  use  is  to  describe  boys,  and  boys  is  called  the 
principal  of  naughty. 

What  is  the  base  of  the  element  very  small?  What 
word  modifies  small?  Small  is  the  principal  to  which  the 
modifier  very  is  subordinate. 

A  modifier  is  said  to  be  subordinate  to  the  base  which  it  modifies. 
The  base  of  an  element  is  the  principal  of  its  modifiers. 

Exercise. 

Tell  what  the  principals  are  which  the  underlined  subordinate 
elements  modify. 

1.  A  bunch  of  flowers  lay  on  the  table. 

2.  The  teacher,  smiling  slightly,  corrected  my  mistake. 

3.  These  very  mischievous  kittens  tore  up  the  flower  bed. 

21.    PHRASES. 

He  leaned  on  crutches. 

What  is  the  idea  word  of  the  element  on  crutches  ?  To 
what  principal  is  crutches  related  ?  What  is  the  relation 
word  which  shows  the  relation  of  crutches  to  leaned? 

The  bucket  of  ^vater  is  heavy. 

What  shows  the  relation  of  the  idea  word  in  the  sub- 
ordinate element  to  its  principal? 

The  bucket  is  full. 

What  is  the  idea  word  in  the  predicate  is  full?  What  is 
the  principal  which  /////  describes  ?  What  is  the  relation 
word  which  expresses  the  relation  of  /////  to  bucket '? 

P.  C.  GRAM.  —  4 


50  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO  STRUCTURE 

Exercise. 

Select  the  idea  words  and  the  relation  words  of  the  underlined  ele- 
ments in  the  following  sentences.  Tell,  in  each  case,  which  of  the 
related  words  is  principal  and  which  is  subordinate. 

1 .  The  storm  blew  from  the  north. 

2.  The  storm  from  the  north  did  much  damage. 

3.  Upon  the  hill  the  old  house  stands. 

4.  The  expression  of  her  face  was  beautiful. 

5.  The  trial  of  strength  to  which  I  was  put  tired  me  beyond  endurance. 

Some  elements  consist  of  two  parts,  one  to  represent  an  idea,  and 
the  other  to  show  its  relation.  Such  an  element  is  called  a  phrase. 

EXAMPLE.     I  ran  to  the  prostrate  man. 

The  prostrate  man  is  the  idea  part ;  to  is  the  relation  part. 

EXAMPLE.     The  man  stands  on  the  platform. 

In  the  phrase  on  the  platform,  on  is  the  relation  part,  and  the  plat- 
form is  the  idea  part ;  the  modifies  the  idea  word  platform. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  phrases  out  of  each  of  the  following  sentences  and  tell 
what  are  their  idea  parts  and  what  are  their  relation  parts :  — 

i .  The  trial  of  the  last  prisoner  is  over. 

2  Send  to  my  father  an  account  of  the  matter. 

3.  The  girl  on  the  platform  speaks  with  great  distinctness. 

4.  In  the  heat  of  the  moment  I  wrote  a  very  sharp  letter. 

22.  PREPOSITIONAL  AND  ASSERTIVE  PHRASES. 

We  were  tired  of  play. 
Of  shows  the  relation  of  play  to  its  principal,  tired. 

The  boy  is  happy. 
The  man  was  a  butcher. 

Is  asserts  the  relation  of   happy  to  its  principal,    boy. 


PREPOSITIONAL   AND  ASSERTIVE   PHRASES  51 

Was  asserts  the  relation  of  the  idea  part,  a  butcher,  to  its 
principal,  man. 

The  predicate  consisting  of  an  asserter  and  an  attribute 
is  a  phrase,  but  here  the  asserter,  which  is  the  relation 
word,  asserts  the  relation,  instead  of  only  showing  it. 

A  phrase  of  this  particular  kind  is  both  predicative  and 
adjective,  since  its  base  both  asserts  and  describes  or 
restricts.  As  its  relation  part  is  an  asserter,  it  is  called 
an  assertive  phrase. 

Words  of  wisdom  were  spoken. 
The  train  arrived  on  time. 

Of  shows  the  relation  of  wisdom  to  its  principal,  words. 
On  shows  the  relation  of  time  to  its  principal,  arrived. 

A  phrase  thus  introduced  by  a  word  which  indicates, 
without  asserting,  the  relation  of  the  idea  part  to  its  princi- 
pal, is  called  a  prepositional  phrase ;  its  relation  word  is 
called  a  preposition. 

A  phrase  element  is  an  element  which  consists  of  one  part  to  represent 
an  idea  and  another  part  to  show  its  relation. 

The  relation  word  which  asserts  the  relation  of  the  idea  part  of  a 
phrase  to  its  principal  is  called  an  asserter. 

The  relation  word  which  only  indicates  the  relation  of  the  idea  part 
of  a  phrase  to  its  principal  is  called  a  preposition. 

EXAMPLE.     The  stars  of  the  flag  are  white. 

I  2 

1 .  Of  the  flag  is  an  adjective  phrase ;  its  idea  part  is  the  flag,  whose 
relation  to  stars  is  indicated  by  of. 

2.  Are  white  is  an  assertive  phrase;  its  idea  part  is  white,  whose 
relation  to  its  principal,  stars,  is  asserted  by  the  asserter  are. 

EXAMPLE.     The  large  house  on  the  hill  is  a  hospital. 

I  2 

i .  On  the  hill  is  an  adjective  phrase ;  its  idea  part  is  the  hill,  whose 
relation  to  its  principal,  house,  is  shown  by  the  preposition  on. 


52  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

2.  Is  a  hospital  is  an  assertive  phrase ;  its  idea  part  is  a  hospital, 
whose  relation  to  house  is  asserted  by  is. 

EXAMPLE.    We  go  to  school  to  study. 

I  2 

1 .  To  school  is  an  adverbial  phrase ;  its  idea  part  is  school,  whose 
relation  to  its  principal,  go,  is  shown  by  the  relation  word  to. 

2.  To  study  is  an  adverbial  phrase;    its  idea  part  is  study,  whose 
relation  to  its  principal,  go,  is  shown  by  the  relation  word  to. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  phrases  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  of  each  whether 
it  is  prepositional  or  assertive,  and  what  kind  of  an  element  it  is  :  — 

1.  A  smile  on  her  lip  means  joy  to  me. 

2.  The  river  was  rapid  at  that  place. 

3.  I  am  sure  you  are  right. 

4.  The  stars  in  the  sky  were  reflected  in  the  water. 

5 .  By  day  we  labor,  and  at  night  we  are  tired. 

23.     RELATION  SHOWN  BY  POSITION  AND  FORM. 

The  man  killed  the  boy  means  something  very  different 
from  The  boy  killed  the  man.  This  difference  in  meaning 
depends  entirely  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  two  words, 
man  and  boy.  For  the  same  reason,  All  deaf  cats  are 
blue-eyed  does  not  mean  All  blue-eyed  cats  are  deaf. 

I  also  loved  him  means  something  very  different  from 
/  loved  him  also. 

The  man  again  told  him  to  go  means  something  different 
from  The  man  told  him  to  go  again. 

The  dying  father  blessed  his  child  means  something  dif- 
ferent from  The  father  blessed  his  dying  child. 

I  onfy  had  five  cents  should  mean  something  different 
from  /  had  only  five  cents. 

One  way  of  showing  the  relations  of  words  is  by 
position. 


RELATION  SHOWN  BY  POSITION  AND  FORM         $3 

John's  hat.  The  bird's  home. 

That  man's  horse.  Mary's  doll. 

He,  his;  it,  its.  She,  her,  hers. 

Another  way  of  indicating  relation  is  by  an  alteration 
in  the  usual  form  of  a  word.  This  change  of  form  is 
called  inflection. 


The  general  received  our  request  courteously. 
The  general  received  courteously  our  request. 
The  general  courteously  received  our  request. 
Courteously  the  general  received  our  request. 

In  every  case,  what  is  the  principal  of  the  word  cour- 
teously? Neither  a  change  of  position  or  of  form,  nor  a 
relation  word,  is  needed  to  show  the  relation  of  this 
word  to  its  principal.  The  sense,  or  logic,  of  the  sentence 
demands  that  we  shall  understand  the  relation  between 
courteously  and  received. 

An  element  whose  base  is  a  single  word  is  called  a  word  element 
The  relation  of  a  word  element  may  be  shown  by  position,  by  inflec- 
tion, or  by  both  position  and  inflection,  or  it  may  be  known  merely  by 
the  logic  of  the  sentence. 

EXAMPLE.     The  silly  young  man  spent  his  father's  money  freely. 

The  relations  between  the  words  of  this  sentence  are  shown  by 
their  positions  ;  in  the  words  his  and  father's,  they  are  also  shown  by 
form,  or  inflection.  Each  of  the  elements  in  the  sentence  is  a  word 
element. 

The  entire  element,  The  silly  young  man,  is  a  word  element,  since 
its  base  is  a  single  word,  man.  Also,  spent  his  father's  money  freely  is 
a  word  element,  its  base  being  the  single  word  spent.  His  father's 
money  is  also  a  word  element,  the  base  being  the  one  word  money. 

A  word  element  is  one  whose  base  is  a  single  word. 


54  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO  STRUCTURE 

24.     REVIEW. 

_3  4 5_  6  7 

A  very  lofty  pine  tree  marked  the  spot  well. 

I  2 

1.  A  very  lofty  pine  tree  is  a  substantive  word  element, 
of  which  tree  is  the  base. 

2.  Marked  the  spot  well  is  a  predicative  word  element, 
of  which  marked  is  the  base. 

3.  A  is  an  adjective  word  element  limiting  the  meaning 
of  the  word  tree. 

4.  Very  lofty  is  an  adjective  word  element  giving  addi- 
tional meaning  to  the  word  tree  ;  its  base  is  lofty. 

5.  Pine  is  an  adjective  word  element  giving  additional 
meaning  to  the  word  tree. 

6.  The  spot  is  an  objective  word  element  limiting  the 
meaning  of  marked ;  its  base  is  spot. 

7.  Well  is  an  adverbial  word  element  giving  additional 
meaning  to  marked. 

Exercise. 

Analyze  the  following  according  to  the  foregoing  model :  — 
345  67 


i.    A  fine  young  kitten  played  there  friskily. 

I  2 


2.    My  neighbor,  Mr.  Smith,  shod  my  horse  very  well  yesterday. 


2 


3  4  5 6 

3.  Her  father's  old  horse  lost  his  shoe  yesterday  morning. 

I  2 

3  4.  <  6 


4.    These  brave  boys  rescued  their  companions  very  nobly, 
i  2 


WORD  MODIFIERS  IN  PHRASES  55 

Analyze  the  word  elements  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  Four  famous  men  traveled  together. 

2.  My  cousin  Mary  reads  remarkably  well. 

3.  Yonder  cloud  means  rain. 

4.  Her  brother's  wooden  horse  rocked  slowly. 

5.  A  fine-looking  company  marched  past. 

6.  Truly  generous  people  do  much  good. 

7.  Seven  red-cheeked  little  boys  skated  together. 

8.  The  old  lady  had  handsome  gray  hair. 

9.  Beautiful  white  chrysanthemums  grow  here. 
10.  A  brisk  fire  blazed  cheerfully. 

n.    Come  close,  sir. 

12.  A  handsomely  illustrated  geography  lay  on  the  table. 

13.  What  does  yonder  cloud  mean  ? 

Supply  word  modifiers  (each  consisting  of  a  single  word),  to  the 
following  bases :  — 

1 .  Apples  ripen.  4.   Cousin  went. 

2.  Horse  ran.  5.    Boys  ran. 

3.  Band  played. 

Supply  word  modifiers  (one  of  them  consisting  of  more  than  one 
word),  to  each  of  the  following  bases  :  — 

1.  Flower  grew.  4.   Children  studied. 

2.  Children  played.  5.   Man  spoke. 

3.  Boy  behaved. 

25.     WORD  MODIFIERS  IN  PHRASES. 

The  presence  of  a  modifier  in  any  element  does  not  alter 
the  class  of  the  element ;  a  phrase  is  still  a  phrase  though 
it  contains  a  modifier. 

EXAMPLE.     We  go  to  the  new  school  to  study  arithmetic. 

I  2 

1.  To  the  new  school  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  the  and  new  being 
modifiers  of  the  idea  word  school,  the  base  of  the  idea  part. 

2.  To  study  arithmetic  also   is   an    adverbial    phrase,   arithmetic 
modifying  the  idea  word  study. 


56  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

A  prepositional  phrase  often  contains  modifiers  which 
belong  to  the  idea  part  only. 

EXAMPLE.     The  mass  of  fleecy  clouds. 

Fleecy  modifies  only  the  idea  word  clouds,  in  the  phrase  of  fleecy 
clouds, 

EXAMPLE.     I  desire  to  see  you  soon. 

You  and  soon  modify  only  the  idea  word  see,  in  the  phrase  to  see 
you  soon. 

An  assertive  phrase  also  often  contains  modifiers  which 
belong  to  the  complement  only. 

EXAMPLE.     I  am  a  rapid  writer. 

A  and  rapid  modify  only  the  idea  word  writer,  in  the  phrase  am  a 
rapid  writer. 

EXAMPLE.     She  is  very  rich. 

Very  modifies  only  the  idea  word  rich,  in  the  phrase  is  very  rich. 

The  assertive  phrase,  however,  may  contain  words 
apparently  modifying  the  asserter  mainly. 

EXAMPLE.     I  am  now  poor. 

In  truth  the  entire  phrase  am  poor  is  modified  by  now,  but  now 
seems  to  throw  its  modifying  force  on  am  chiefly. 

26.    REVIEW. 

Exercise. 
Analyze  the  underlined  phrases  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  The  clock  in  the  corner  was  an  heirloom. 

I  2 

2.  The  plant  in  the  window  is  a  geranium. 

I  2 

3.  The  seas  were  high. 

i 

4.  The  physician  studied  to  obtain  a  diploma. 

i 

5.  The  grapes  on  the  plate  are  very  sour. 

i  2 


PHRASES   CONTAINING  PHRASE  MODIFIERS  $? 

6.  An  invitation  to  the  wedding  arrived  on  Friday. 

i 

7.  The  desire  to  stay  was  strong. 

I  2 

8.  I  worked  hard  to  finish  my  task. 

i 

Insert  phrase  modifiers  in  the  following  sentences : 

1 .  The  lesson  (adjective  prepositional  phrase  element,  beginning  with 
011)  tired  me. 

2.  Our  work  (assertive  phrase  element,  beginning  with  was). 

3.  The  ship  (adjective  prepositional  phrase  element,  beginning  with 
'iii)  ran  ashore. 

4.  It  ran  (adverbial  prepositional  phrase  element,  beginning  with  on}. 

27.   PHRASES   CONTAINING  PHRASE  MODIFIERS. 

The  modifiers  of  the  idea  words  in  phrase  elements,  so 
far  considered,  have  been  word  modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.     The  windows  in  our  new  house  are  broken. 
Our  and  new  are  word  modifiers  of  the  idea  word  house,  in  the 
phrase  in  our  new  house. 

EXAMPLE.     The  windows  in  that  perfectly  new  house  are  broken. 
That  and  perfectly  new  are  word  modifiers  of  the  idea  word  house. 


The  windows  in  the  house  on  the  hill  are  broken. 

On  the  hill  is  a  phrase  modifying  its  principal,  house ; 
but  house  is  itself  the  main  idea  word  of  the  entire  phrase 
in  the  house  on  the  kill. 

We  were  playmates  of  the  boy. 

Similarly,  in  the  phrase  were  playmates  of  the  boy,  the 
main  idea  word,  playmates,  is  modified  by  the  phrase 
of  the  boy. 


58  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING   TO  STRUCTURE 

5  7  8 


That  handsomely  furnished  house  with  a  lawn  in  front 

i 
io  12       13 

9  ii     

was  occupied  last  year  by  an  Italian  family. 


1.  A  word  element  containing  word  modifiers  and  a 
phrase  modifier. 

2.  A  phrase  element  containing  a  word  and  a  phrase 
modifier. 

3.  A  word  element. 

4.  A  word  element  containing  a  word  modifier. 

5.  A  word  element. 

6.  A  phrase  element  containing  a  word  and  a  phrase 
modifier. 

7.  A  word  element. 

8.  A  phrase  element. 

9.  A  word  element  containing  a  word  modifier. 

10.  A  word  element. 

11.  A  phrase  element  containing  word  modifiers. 

12.  A  word  element. 

13.  A  word  element. 

Exercise. 
According  to  the  foregoing  model,  analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

3_ 4  5  6  7 

1.  A  swiftly  flowing  stream  very  rapidly  cut  away  the  hill. 

I  2 

3  4 5 

2.  The  bank  to  the  left  of  the  house  fell  first. 


3.    We  watched  with  dismay  the  approach  of  the  waters. 


CLA  USES  59 

Section  II.  — Clauses. 

28.    CLAUSES. 

[I  am  rash.     I  admit  it.]    may  be  equivalent  to  [I  admit 

that  I  am  rash.] 
[He  is  ill.     It  worries  me.]  may  be  equivalent  to  [That 

he  is  ill  worries  me.] 
[The  man  is  here.     He  is  my  brother.]  may  be  equivalent 

to   [The  man  who  is  here  is  my  brother.] 
[You  wish  it.     I  will  go.]  may  be  equivalent  to  [I  will  go 

because  you  wish  it.] 
[I  see  you.     You  see  me.]  may  be  equivalent  to  — 

a.  I  see  you  and  you  see  me. 

b.  I  see  you  because  you  see  me. 

c.  I  see  you  ;  therefore  you  see  me. 

d.  I  see  you  who  see  me. 

e.  You,  whom  I  see,  see  me. 

What  is  a  clause  ?  (p.  20.)  The  sentence  I  see  you  and 
you  see  me  can  readily  be  divided  into  two  clauses,  either 
of  which  makes  a  complete  sentence  when  separated  from 
the  other.  The  sentence  /  see  you  who  see  me  cannot  be 
so  divided,  for  who  see  me  is  not  a  sentence.  It  must  be 
changed  by  the  substitution  of  you  for  who  to  make  it  a 
correct  sentence.  But  it  has  the  two  essential  elements 
of  a  sentence,  the  subject  and  predicate.  Hence  we  call 
it  a  clause. 

A  subject  and  predicate  combined  form  a  clause. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  only  one  clause  is  a  simple  sentence. 

Frequently,  however,  a  sentence  contains  more  than  one 
clause. 


60  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

In  some  cases  the  clauses  are  joined  by  simply  adding 
one  to  the  other. 

EXAMPLE.     I  went  to  the  fire,  and  John  followed  me. 

These  clauses  are  of  equal  importance,  and  are  hence 
called  coordinate. 

Exercise. 

Unite  the  following  sentences  so  that  each  pair  may  be  coordinate 
clauses  in  a  new  sentence  :  — 

1.  The  rain  falls.     The  wind  blows. 

2.  Many  voices  were  heard.     He  heeded  them  not. 

3.  You  will  go.     I  shall  go  too. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  coordinate  clauses  is  a  compound 
sentence. 


The  man  is  very  handsome.     He  spoke  to  me. 
The  man  who  spoke  to  me  is  very  handsome. 

The  clause  who  spoke  to  me  is  not  of  equal  importance 
with  the  other  clause,  but  is  a  subordinate  element  within 
the  other  clause.  It  is  therefore  called  a  subordinate 
clause,  while  the  clause  which  contains  it  is  called  the 
principal  clause. 

The  clock  has  run  down.     I  bought  it. 
The  clock  which  I  bought  has  run  down. 

Which  I  bought  is  an  adjective  element  modifying  the 
subject  base. 

I  went  down  town.     The  sun  was  down. 
I  went  down  town  when  the  sun  was  down. 

When  the  sun  was  down  is  an  adverbial  element  modify- 
ing the  predicate  base. 


USES   OF  SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES  6 1 

I  know  it.     He  is  elected. 
I  know  that  he  is  elected. 

That  he  is  elected  is  an  objective  element  within  the 
principal  clause. 

Exercise. 

Select  principal  and  subordinate  clauses  from  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

1 .  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth. 

2.  That  the  old  man  suffered  was  evident  to  all. 

3.  He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

4.  We  hurried  home  because  the  rain  was  falling. 

A  sentence  composed  of  a  principal  clause  containing  one  or  more 
subordinate  clauses  is  a  complex  sentence. 

Exercise. 
Combine  the  following  .sentences  so  as  to  form  complex  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  young  lady  sings  well.     She  is  my  cousin. 

2.  Lord  Tennyson  died  in  1892.    He  was  the  Poet  Laureate  of  England. 

3.  The  bell  has  rung.     I  believe  it. 

29.     USES  OF  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

The  man  who  applied  for  a  place  failed  in  his  examination. 

That  we  desire  it  is  well  known. 

The  lady  fainted  when  she  heard  the  shots. 

I  saw  where  the  man  fell. 

Who  applied  for  a  place  is  an  adjective  element  modifying 
man.  That  we  desire  it  is  a  substantive  element.  When 
she  heard  the  shots  is  an  adverbial  element.  Where  the 
man  fell  \§  an  objective  element. 

A  clause  can  perform  the  office  of  a  substantive  element,  an  adjective 
element,  an  adverbial  element,  or  an  objective  element,  but  not  of  a 
predicative  element. 


62  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO  STRUCTURE 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  subordinate  clauses  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
whether  they  are  substantive,  adjective,  adverbial,  or  objective  :  — 

1 .  The  apples  which  grew  in  the  young  orchard  are  the  sweetest. 

2.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

3.  That  the  days  are  growing  shorter  is  plainly  observable. 

4.  A  stone  was  placed  where  Warren  fell. 

5.  She  speaks  as  she  feels. 

6.  The  place  where  the  date  grows  is  far  distant. 

7.  The  man  to  whom  the  speaker  referred  lived  long  ago. 

8.  Angels  listen  when  she  speaks. 

9.  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 

10.    He  that  wrestles  with  us  strengthens  our  nerves  and  sharpens  our 

skill. 
n.    I  believe  that  all  will  yet  be  well. 

12.  The  time  when  men  were  persecuted  for  their  religious  beliefs  has 

long  since  passed  away. 

13.  What  you  want  is  suspected. 

14.  The  mountains  over  which  Hannibal  crossed  are  the  Alps. 

15.  We  expect  that  the  train  will  be  late. 

1 6.  Why  the  man  rode  so  dangerous  a  horse  was  not  explained. 

Exercise. 

1.  Form  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate   clause  used   as 
substantive  element. 

2.  Form  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate   clause   used  as 
adjective  element. 

3.  Form  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate  clause  used   as 
adverbial  element. 

4.  Form  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate  clause  used  as  an 
objective  element. 

5 .  Form  complex  sentences  with  subordinate  clauses  introduced  by 
that;  by  what;  by  why ;  by  where;  by  when. 

30.     BASES  OF  CLAUSES. 

In  the  subordinate  clause,  as  in  the  principal  clause,  the 
base  must  consist  of  two  parts. 


BASES   OF  CLAUSES  63 

A  hint  which  I  gave  him  sufficed. 

The  principal  clause  is  A  hint  which  I  gave  him  sufficed, 
in  which  the  subject  base  is  hint,  and  the  predicate  base  is 
sufficed.  The  base  of  the  clause  is  hint  sufficed. 

The  subordinate  clause  is  which  I  gave  him,  in  which 
the  subject  base  is  /,  and  the  predicate  base  is  gave.  The 
base  of  the  clause  is  I  gave. 

The  base  of  a  clause  consists  of  a  subject  base  joined  to  a  predicate 
base. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  principal  clause,  the  subordinate  clause,  and  the  base  of 
each  clause  in  th£  following:  — 

1.  The  injury  from  which  I  suffered  destroyed  my  sight. 

2.  I  hope  that  you  will  be  in  time  for  the  train. 

3.  The  fire  burned  until  no  fuel  remained. 

4.  While  I  was  musing  the  fire  burned. 

5.  "  It's  a  dark  night,"  sang  the  cricket. 

Unite  the  following  in  all  possible  ways  to  form  complex  sentences, 
and  analyze  the  sentences  thus  formed  :  — 

1.  We  traveled  through  Maine.     The  leaves  were  turning  red. 

2.  The  man  preached  in  London.     He  was  Charles  Spurgeon. 

3.  Columbus  reached  the  mainland.     It  was  in  1498. 

4.  Lord  Byron  was  a  poet.    He  wrote  "  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage." 


Refined  women  do  not  use  slang.     (Adj.  word  element.) 
Women  of  refinement   do  not  use  slang.      (Adj.   phrase 

element.) 
Women  zu/io  are  refined  do  not  use  slang.      (Adj.  clause 

element.) 

He  came  then. .  (Adv.  word  element.) 
He  came  at  the  moment.     (Adv.  phrase  element.) 
He  came  when  it  was  seven  o  clock.    (Adv.  clause  element.) 


64  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

Exercise. 

Enlarge  the  underscored  word  elements  to  phrase  and  clause  elements 
performing  the  same  office  :  — 

1.  Beautiful  homes  nestled  in  the  valley. 

2.  Boston  is  situated  there. 

3.  A  celebrated  pianist  played  before  the  Queen. 

4.  The  days  are  fine  now. 

5.  The  U.S.  Treasury  building  is  located  here. 

6.  An  honest  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 

31.    SUBORDINATE  CONNECTIVES. 

I  know  that  I  have  met  you  before. 

What  is  the  principal  clause  ?  What  is  the  subordinate 
clause  ?  What  word  in  the  principal  clause  is  the  principal 
of  the  subordinate  clause  ?  What  word  joins  the  subordi- 
nate clause  to  its  principal  ? 

An  adjective  clause,  an  adverbial  clause,  or  an  objective 
clause  generally  contains  a  relation  word  which  joins  it  to 
its  principal  in  the  main  clause.  This  relation  word  is 
called  a  subordinate  connective. 

EXAMPLES.     The  man  who  entered  saw  you. 

Five  witnesses  whom  I  examined  declared  it. 
I  know  how  you  do  it. 
The  point  toward  which  I  ran  was  distant. 
I  know  what  I  want. 


I  know  I  have  met  you  before. 

This  sentence  means  the  same  as  the  fipst  one  in  the 
lesson. 

A  subordinate  connective  may  sometimes  be  omitted. 


SUBORDINATE   CONNECTIVES  65 

Exercise. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  point  out  or  supply  (if  possible) 
the  subordinate  connective  which  shows  the  relation  of  the  subordinate 
clause  to  its  principal. 

1.  Health  is  a  blessing  which  money  cannot  buy. 

2.  He  visited  the  South  when  the  roses  were  in  bloom. 

3.  I  do  not  know  how  I  shall  go. 

4.  It  was  the  time  when  lilies  bloom. 

5.  We  saw  the  house  in  Cambridge  where  Washington  had  his  head- 

quarters during  the  Revolution. 

6.  The  man  from  whom  I  ordered  the  photographs  was  an  agent. 

7.  The  five  boys  who  spoke  to  me  belong  to  Company  E. 

8.  The  dogs  eat  of  the  crumbs  which  fall  from  the  rich  man's  table. 

9.  When  she  had  passed  it  seemed  like  the  ceasing  of  exquisite  music. 

10.  The  house  you  want  is  rented. 

11.  "  Come  to  me/1  said  he. 

12.  I  know  you  saw  me. 


What  he  said  is  the  question. 
TJiat  you  did  it  is  certain. 
Why  I  spoke  was  unknown. 
Who  he  could  be  puzzled  me. 

Since  a  substantive  clause  does  not  modify  any  part  of 
the  principal  clause,  the  relation  word  with  which  it  begins 
does  not  join  it  to  any  principal,  but  merely  introduces  it. 

A  complex  sentence  consists  of  a  principal  clause  containing  one  or 
more  subordinate  clauses. 

The  relation  word  which  introduces  a  subordinate  clause  or  which 
joins  it  to  its  principal  in  the  principal  clause  is  called  a  subordinate 
connective. 

32.    OFFICES  OF  SUBORDINATE  CONNECTIVES. 

The  subordinate  connective  resembles  the  preposition  in 
that  they  both  show  the  relation  of  a  subordinate  element 
to  its  principal. 

P.  C.  GRAM. — 5 


66  ELEMENTS  ACCORDING    TO   STRUCTURE 

The  gentleman  who  entered  just  now  owns  the  house. 

I  know  what  you  like. 

I  see  how  you  do  it. 

I  will  go  when  the  rain  ceases. 

W/io  joins  the  adjective  clause  to  its  principal,  gentleman, 
and  is  also  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

What  joins  the  objective  clause  to  its  principal,  know, 
and  is  also  an  objective  word  modifier  of  like  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause. 

How  joins  the  objective  clause  element  to  its  principal, 
see,  and  is  also  an  adverbial  modifier  of  ihe  predicate  verb, 
do,  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

When  joins  the  adverbial  clause  to  its  principal,  go,  and 
is  also  an  adverbial  word  modifier  of  the  predicate  verb, 
ceases,  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

The  subordinate  connective  differs  from  other  relation 
words  in  that  it  is  almost  always  an  idea  element  in  the 
subordinate  clause  and  thus  does  double  duty. 


That  the  man  will  fight  is  certain. 

That  is  a  subordinate  connective  introducing  a  substantive 
clause,  but  it  does  not  join  the  clause  to  any  part  of  the 
principal  clause.  It  merely  introduces  the  subordinate 
clause. 

The  subordinate  connective  introducing  a  substantive  or 
objective  clause  element  often  performs  no  office  in  the 
subordinate  clause,  but  serves  as  a  relation  word  only. 
For  and  because,  also,  are  pure  connectives  ;  and  other  sub- 
ordinate connectives,  usually  adverbial,  sometimes  perform 
so  little  of  the  adverbial  office  as  to  seem  purely  connective. 


CLAUSE  MODIFIERS  IN  SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES       6/ 

Exercise. 

Point  out  subordinate  connectives  and  tell  what  other  office,  if  any, 
each  performs  :  — 

1 .  I  remember  what  I  told  you. 

2.  A  story  which  I  wrote  was  published  in  "Wide  Awake." 

3.  Columbus  thought  that  India  lay  west  of  Europe. 

4.  John  understood  why  I  asked  him  to  go  on  the  errand. 

5.  The  blind  poet  to  whom  he  referred  in  the  lecture  was  Milton. 

6.  This  watch  which  I  lend  you  belonged  to  my  aunt. 

7.  We  may  leave  school  when  we  have  finished  our  work. 

8.  The  steamer  on  which  we  crossed  the  ocean  has  since  been  wrecked. 

9.  We  study  because  we  wish  to  learn. 

10.   We  who  had  time  visited  the  town  where  Hans  Andersen  lived. 


33.  CLAUSE  MODIFIERS   IN   SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

The  hat  which  I  wore  when  we  met  was  expensive. 

Which  I  wore   when  ive   met  is    a   subordinate   clause 
containing  the  subordinate  adverbial  clause  when  we  met. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  subordinate  clause  in  each  of  the  following  sentences. 
Point  out  any  clause  modifiers  contained  in  each  subordinate  clause. 

1 .  The  song  which  you  sang  was  well  received  by  the  audience. 

2.  The  sword  which  Burgoyne  offered  to  Gates,  when  the  British  sur- 

rendered at  Saratoga,  was  immediately  returned  to  him. 

3.  When  Jthe  clouds  which  now  overcast  the  sky  are  dispersed  we  will 

go  out. 

4.  Since  I  must  remain,  I  will  attend  to  the  work  at  home. 

5.  I  see  a  hand  which  beckons  me  away. 

6.  The  bay  on  which  we  row  when  it  is  smooth  is  rough  to-day. 

7.  I  walked  where  the  grass  which  covered  the  lawn  was  greenest. 

8.  The  reason  why  I  do  not  go  while  the  convention  is  in  session,  is 

evident. 


CHAPTER   IV.  —  COMPOUNDS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

Two  word,  phrase,  or  clause  elements  of  equal  rank  are  coordinate. 

Coordinate  elements  united  to  perform  the  same  office  form  a  com- 
pound element. 

A  word  uniting  the  coordinate  parts  of  a  compound  element,  or  the 
coordinate  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence,  is  a  coordinate  connective. 

34.     COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

What  is  a  complex  sentence?  What  is  the  rank  of  each 
clause  in  a  complex  sentence  ?  If  a  sentence  consists  of 
two  or  more  clauses,  none  of  which  is  chief,  and  none  of 
which  is  a  part  of  another,  —  that  is,  if  the  clauses  are 
of  equal  or  coordinate  rank,  —  the  whole  sentence  is  com- 
pound. 

EXAMPLES.  Man  proposes,  but  God  disposes. 

I  2 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold. 

2 

EXAMPLE.     The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold, 

I  2 

The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 
3 

Parts  i,  2,  and  3  are  coordinate  clauses;  therefore  the  entire  sen- 
tence is  compound,  consisting  of  three  coordinate  clauses. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  consisting  of  two  or  more  clauses  that 
are  coordinate. 

68 


COMPOUND   SENTENCES  69 

But  any  of  these  main  clauses  in  a  compound  sentence 
may  contain  subordinate  clauses. 

EXAMPLE.  This  proposed  law  was  strongly  opposed,  and  it  was 
not  passed  till  another  election  had  been  held. 

In  this  compound  sentence  the  second  of  the  main  clauses  contains 
the  subordinate  clause  ////  another  election  had  been  held.  The  sentence 
is  therefore  said  to  be  both  compound  and  complex. 

What  is  a  mixed  sentence  ?  (pp.  20,  2 1 ).  Every  mixed 
sentence  is  compound. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  clauses  in  the  following.  Tell  in  each  case  the  structure 
of  the  sentence,  whether  it  is  complex,  compound,  or  both. 

1.  Did  you  come  in  a  carriage,  or  were  you  on  horseback? 

2.  I  loved  my  country,  and  I  hated  him. 

3.  A  strong  east  wind  is  blowing,  and  the  sky  is  overcast. 

4.  Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you;  seek,  and  ye  shall  find;  knock, 

and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you. 

5.  Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen. 

6.  The  king  gave  the  command,  nevertheless  it  was  not  right. 

7.  They  set  sail  when  the  waves  were  rough. 

8.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

9.  The  winds  which  blew  were  bitter;  the  storms  that  raged  were 

fierce  ;  but  the  brave  old  tree  stood  fast  where  fate  had  placed  it. 

10.  Flow  gently,  sweet  Afton,  among  thy  green  braes ; 
Flow  gently,  I'll  sing  thee  a  song  in  thy  praise. 

1 1 .  We  hoped  for  rain ;  but  the  clouds  passed  over,  and  the  earth 

remained  parched  and  dry. 

12.  I  know  what  you  want,  but  while  I  live  you  shall  want  in  vain. 

Unite  the  following  short  sentences  to  make  compound  sentences  :  — 

1 .  The  rose  is  fair.     The  lily  is  fairer. 

2.  The  winds  blew.    The  birds  sang.     The  leaves  rustled  on  the  trees. 

The  streams  hurried  rapidly  on  their  way  to  the  sea.     All  nature 
seemed  to  rejoice. 


pO  COMPOUNDS 

3.  She  was  glad.     I  was  sad. 

4.  The  day  was  dark.     The  snow  fell.     The  poor  traveler  got  lost  on 

the  mountains. 

5.  He  was  bold.     She  was  gentle.     Both  were  good  and  true. 

6.  The  United  States   has   more   population   than   France.      France 

has  a  larger  army  than  the  United  States. 

35.    PUNCTUATION  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 
Exercise. 

Write  a  compound  sentence  about  school,  containing  two  clauses 
united  by  but ;  a  compound  sentence  about  horses,  containing  three 
clauses  separated  by  commas,  and  with  the  second  and  third  united  by 
and-,  a  compound  sentence  about  North  America  and  South  America, 
containing  two  clauses  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  a  compound  sentence 
about  Washington,  New  York,  and  Chicago,  separating  the  clauses  by 
semicolons,  and  joining  the  second  and  third  by  but. 

The  clauses  of  compound  sentences  should  always  be 
joined  by  relation  words,  such  as  and,  but,  or,  or  separated 
by  punctuation  marks,  or  both. 


The  night  is  cold,  and  the  poor  will  suffer. 
The  night  is  cold  ;  the  poor  will  suffer. 

Two  clauses  forming  a  compound  sentence  are  united 
by  a  connective  or  separated  by  a  punctuation  mark,  or 
both. 


I  visited  you  on  Sunday,  you  returned  my  call  on  Monday, 
and  we  met  again  on  Tuesday. 

In  a  series  of  clauses  th-e  comma  is  generally  used  to 
separate  them,  and  the  last  two  are  often  joined  by  a 
connective. 


PUNCTUATION  OF  COMPOUND   SENTENCES  J\ 

The  dog  that  had  acted  as  if  bewitched  all  day,  howled 
terribly  ;  the  wind,  moaning  like  a  creature  in  pain, 
busily  heaped  the  dead  leaves  against  the  unsteady 
barrier  formed  by  the  rotting  logs ;  and  my  heart  sank 
as  I  listened  to  these  ominous  notes  with  which  Nature 
seemed  to  warn  me  of  approaching  calamity. 

If  the  clauses  themselves  contain  commas,  they  are 
separated  by  semicolons. 

Exercise. 

Observe  the  punctuation  in  the  last  lesson,  and  punctuate  the  fol- 
lowing sentences :  — 

1.  The  character  of  Washington  was  noble  and  his  appearance  was 

commanding 

2.  The  fire  burned  steadily  but  it  seemed  to  give  no  heat 

3.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field  how  they  grow  they  toil  not  neither 

do  they  spin 

4.  The  harvest  truly  is  plenteous  but  the  laborers  are  few 

5.  The  moon  looks  on  many  brooks 
The  brook  can  see  no  moon  but  this 

6.  I  was  born  an  American  I  live  an  American  I  shall  die  an  American 

7.  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours 

8.  They  took  the  spear  but  left  the  shield 

9.  They  have  sown  the  wind  and  they  shall  reap  the  whirlwind 

10.  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air 

11.  Slowly  and  gently  we  laid  him  down 

From  the  field  of  his  fame  fresh  and  gory 
We  carved  not  a  line  and  we  raised  not  a  stone 
But  we  left  him  alone  with  his  glory 

12.  Tigers  are  often  very  deceptive  and  I  am  a  cautious  person  but 

going  within  arm's  length  I   quietly  put  a  bullet  through  the 
beast's  eye  as  a  matter  of  safety 

13.  Take  my  hand  and  I  will  lead  you  to  the  light 


72  COMPOUNDS 

36.    COMPOUND  ELEMENTS. 

You  like  to  go  to  school  and  I  like  to  go  to  school  is  better 
stated,  You  and  I  like  to  go  to  school. 

If  two  or  more  sentences  having  predicate  bases  alike 
are  to  be  joined,  it  is  often  possible  to  use  the  predicate 
base  but  once,  making  a  sentence  having  a  compound 
subject. 

In  a  corresponding  way  two  or  more  predicates  may  be 
united,  so  as  to  form  a  compound  predicate. 

EXAMPLE.  The  child  hates  work  but  the  child  loves  play  is  better 
expressed,  The  child  hates  work  but  loves  play. 

In  fact,  wherever  coordinate  elements  are  joined  to  per- 
form the  same  office  in  a  sentence,  they  form  a  compound 
element. 

The  good  and  beautiful  woman  spoke  to  me. 

He  writes  rapidly  and  well. 

Good  and  beautiful  is  a  compound  adjective  word  element. 
Rapidly  and  well  is  a  compound  adverbial  word  element. 

I  went  over  the  bridge  and  into  the  woods. 
My  father  spoke  slowly,  but  without  hesitation. 

Over  the  bridge  and  into  the  woods  is  a  compound  adver- 
bial phrase  element. 

Sloivly,  but  without  hesitation,  is  a  compound  adverbial 
word  and  phrase  element. 

The  children  ran  to  and  from  the  house  all  day  long. 
Over  fields  and  woods  the  thick  dust  settled. 

To  and  from  the  house  is  an  adverbial  phrase  element 
whose  relation  part  is  compound. 

Over  fields  and  woods  is  an  adverbial  phrase  element 
whose  idea  part  is  compound. 


COMPOUND   ELEMENTS  73 

The  teacher,  who  loved  us  all,  and  whom  we  all  loved, 
parted  from  us  with  tears. 

Who  loved  us  all  and  whom  we  all  loved  is  a  compound 
adjective  clause  element. 

A  compound  element  consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate,  connected 
elements,  placed  alike  and  used  alike  in  the  sentence. 

Exercise. 

Select  from  the  following  the  compound  elements,  and  tell  how 
they  are  joined :  — 

1 .  Mary  and  I  took  a  walk. 

2.  The  old  man  and  his  little  dog  are  here. 

3.  The  presiding  officer  or  the  clerk  of  the  court  asked  the  question. 

4.  I  sing  very  little,  but  play  on  the  piano  a  good  deal. 

5.  I  went  to  Sunday  school  and  church. 

6.  We  went  up  and  down  the  street. 

7.  The  boy,  excited,  and  on  tiptoe  with  expectation,  followed  me  up 

the  stairs  and  into  my  room. 

8.  Large,  ripe,  and  luscious  peaches  hung  from  the  branches. 

9.  John,  Mary,  and  James  were  looking  at  the  picture  book. 

10.  Men  of  thought,  of  wisdom,  and  of  experience  do  not  act  hastily. 

11.  The  boy  solved  the  problem  neatly,  rapidly,  and  correctly. 

12.  The  soldiers  retreated  in  confusion,  were  pursued  by  the  enemy, 

and  escaped  into  the  river. 

13.  Large  numbers  of  cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  are  caught  yearly. 

14.  The  song  which  you  sang,  and  which  I  disliked,  was  well  received 

by  the  audience. 

15.  The  man  of  whom  I  write,  and  to  whom  I  have  often  spoken,  was 

a  famous  general. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  compound  subject ;  one  containing 
a  compound  predicate ;  one  containing  a  compound  adjective  word 
element ;  one  containing  a  compound  adjective  phrase  element ;  one 
containing  a  compound  adverbial  word  element ;  one  containing  a  com- 
pound adverbial  phrase  element. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  an  adjective  phrase  element  whose 
relation  part  is  compound. 


74  COMPOUNDS 

Write  a  sentence  containing  an  adverbial  phrase  element  whose 
relation  part  is  compound. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  an  adjective  phrase  element  whose 
idea  part  is  compound. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  an  adverbial  phrase  element  whose 
idea  part  is  compound. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  a  compound  adjective  clause ;  one  con- 
taining a  compound  substantive  clause ;  one  containing  a  compound 
adverbial  clause;  one  containing  a  compound  objective  clause. 

37.     MODIFIERS   OF   COMPOUNDS. 

The  big  boy  and  the  little  girl  on  the  platform  belong  to 

our  school. 

Big  rrfodifies  boy,  and  little  modifies  girl ;  but  on  the 
platform  modifies  both  boy  and  girl. 

All  the  parts  of  a  compound  element  may  be  modified  by  the  same 
element,  or  they  may  have  different  modifiers. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  compound  elements  in  the  following  sentences  and  give 
the  separate  modifiers  of  each  part,  and  the  joint  modifiers  of  all  the 
parts  :  — 

1.  The  old  general  and  the  young  lieutenant  of  the  grand  army  rode 

up  the- street  together. 

2.  Some  children  think  quickly  and  speak  slowly,  while  others  think 

and  speak  with  rapidity. 

3.  Men  and  women  of  courage  and  fortitude  emigrated  to  the  far  West. 

4.  Children  of  refinement  and  children  without  home  training  met  in 

the  great  school. 

5.  Men  of  thought  and  men  of  action,  clear  the  way. 

6.  I  am  but  a  gatherer  and  disposer  of  other  men^s  stuff. 

7.  Sardines  from  the  Mediterranean,  grapes  from  France,  and  dates 

from  Egypt  formed  part  of  the  feast. 

8.  Men,  women,  and  children  from  the  neighboring  street  hastened 

to  the  scene. 

9.  That  the  Americans  had  conquered  was  news,  and  unwelcome  news, 

to  the  foe. 


UNION   OF  COMPOUNDS  75 

10.  The  troops  which  were  quartered  in  the  town,  and  the  officers  who 

galloped  through  it,  were  unmolested. 

11.  I  know  that  the  testimony  was  sufficient  to  condemn  him,  and  that 

the  judge's  charge  was  clear ;  but  the  jury  will  acquit  him. 

12.  Children  who  study  and  make  sufficient  progress  will  be  promoted 

at  the  end  of  the  year. 

38.     UNION  OF  COMPOUNDS. 

The  parts  of  compound  elements,  whatever  the  class, 
are  either  joined  by  relation  words,  or  separated  by  marks 
of  punctuation,  or  both. 

A  compound,  element  consisting  of  two  parts  should 
have  either  a  connective  or  a  comma  between  the  parts. 
If  the  parts  are  very  long,  both  comma  and  connective 
may  be  used. 

The  parts  of  a  compound  element  consisting  of  more 
than  two  members  should,  usually  be  separated  by  com- 
mas, and  a  connective  should  usually  be  inserted  between 
the  last  two  members. 

Exercise. 
Observe  the  exercises  in  the  chapter  and  punctuate  the  following : 

1.  His  strength  was  gone  again  and  he  said  very  little  more  that  day 

2.  Verily  verily  I  say  unto  you 

3.  With  eyes  to  her  sewing  work  dropped  down 

And  with  hair  in  a  tangled  shower 
And  with  roses  kissed  by  the  sun  so  brown 
Young  Janey  sat  in  her  bower 

4.  Are  you  .ready  to  return  or  shall  we  delay  another  hour 

5.  Be  ye  therefore  wise  as  serpents  and  harmless  as  doves 

6.  The  spirit  indeed  is  willing  but  the  flesh  is  weak 

7.  The  words  of  his  mouth  were  smoother  than  butter  but  war  was 

in  his  heart 

8.  The  stormy  March  has  come  at  last 

With  winds  and  clouds  and  changing  skies 

9.  He  then  proceeded  to  draw  on  a  pair  of  old  shabby  and  very  dirty 

white  kid  gloves 


76  COMPOUNDS 

Mary  and  John  skated  to  school. 

Her  still  and  lifeless  lips  gave  no  answer  to  my  cry. 

Mary  and  John  are  equal  elements  in  the  first  sentence, 
having  the  same  relation  to  the  element  skated  to  school. 
In  the  same  way,  still  and  lifeless  are  equal  elements,  hav- 
ing the  same  relation  to  the  word  lips. 

The  relation  words  introduced  to  join  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence,  or  the  parts  of  a  compound  element, 
are  not  the  same  words  as  those  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion of  an  idea  word  to  its  principal,  or  of  a  subordinate 
clause  to  its  principal,  yet  they  are  true  relation  words. 
The  preposition  and  the  subordinate  connective  show  in- 
equality of  relation  ;  that  is,  each  shows  the  relation  of  a 
subordinate  element  to  its  principal.  The  coordinate  con- 
nective shows  equality  of  relation,  or  indicates  that  the 
coordinate  elements  which  it  connects  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

A  coordinate  connective  shows  that  the  coordinate  words  or  coordinate 
elements  which  it  joins,  bear  the  same  relation  to  some  other  word  or 
element  in  the  sentence. 

A  coordinate  connective  joining  the  coordinate  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence  shows  that  these  clauses  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  rest 
of  the  paragraph. 

Select  the  coordinate  connectives  in  the  following  sentences  and  tell 
what  they  join  and  what  office  the  compound  fulfills  :  — 

1.  London,  the  great  landscape  gardener,  studied  hard  and  soon 

acquired  a  good  education. 

2.  The  wages  of  sin  is  death  ;  but  the  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life. 

3.  His  career  is  interesting  as  well  as  instructive. 

4.  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb  were  the  joint  authors  of  "  Tales  from 

Shakespeare." 

5.  Janet,  hire  the  gray  pony  and  chaise  to-morrow  morning  at  ten 

o'clock,  and  pack  up  Master  Trotwood's  clothes  to-night. 

6.  When  she  began  to  look  about  her,  and  to  speak  to  me,  he  nodded 

his  head  and  smiled  several  times. 


REVIEW  77 

7.  We  parted ;    sweetly  gleamed   the   stars  and  sweet  the  zephyrs 

braided  blue. 

8.  God  bless  him,  he  shall  sit  upon  my  knees,  and  I  will  tell  him  tales 

of  foreign  parts  and  make  him  merry. 

9.  The  day  was  fair,  but  the  night  came  quickly,  and  brought  with  it 

a  furious  storm. 

10.  The  author  of  "David  Copperfield  "  and  of  many  other  novels  was 

Charles  Dickens. 

11.  There  was  a  black  barge,  or  some  other  kind  of  superannuated 

boat,  not  far  off,  high  and  dry  on  the  ground. 

12.  On  the  walls  there  were  some*  common  colored  pictures  framed 

and  glazed. 


39.     REVIEW. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  The  city  of  Mexico  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  circular  plain. 

2.  London  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Thames. 

3.  This  room  was  chilly  because  it  seldom  had  a  fire. 

4.  They  journeyed  to  the  land  where  the  sun  shone  and  the  birds 

sang  and  the  climate  was  perpetual  spring. 

5 .  Awake,  my  soul !  stretch  every  nerve 

And  press  with  vigor  on  ; 
A  heavenly  race  demands  thy  zeal, 
And  an  immortal  crown. 

6.  The  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

7.  The  tree  of  liberty  grows  only  when  it  is  watered  by  the  blood  of 

tyrants. 

8.  Booth  was  the  actor  of  whom  we  were  speaking  when  the  curtain 

rose. 

9.  The  Scotchmen  love  their  moors  passionately. 

10.  There  was  a  deep  natural  valley  in  the  place  where  the  canal 

was  cut. 

11.  With  infinite  toil  they  slowly  cut  down  the  forests  which  cover  the 

hillsides  and  fill  the  river  valleys. 

12.  From  the  old  squire's  dwelling,  gloomy  and  grand, 
Stretching  away  on  either  hand, 

Lie  fields  of  broad  and  fertile  land. 


/8  SIMPLE  ANALYSIS 

13.  He  who  goes  to  his  own  home,  when  the  day's  work  is  over,  should 

take  with  him  a  contented  heart. 

14.  In  person  Edgar  Allan  Poe  was  slight,  and  hardly  of  the  medium 

height ;  his  motions  were  quick  and  nervous ;    his  air  was  ab- 
stracted ;  and  his  countenance  was  generally  serious  and  pale. 

15.  King  Bruce  of  Scotland  flung  himself  down 

In  a  lonely  mood  to  think  ; 
'Tis  true  he  was  monarch,  and  wore  a  crown. 
But  his  heart  was  beginning  to  sink. 

1 6.  Thus  they  arrived  at  the  court  in  great  silence,  and  King  Arthur 

read  the  letter  before  all  his  knights  and  weeping  ladies. 

17.  Between  the  time  of  Chaucer  and  that  of  Sidney  and  Spenser  we 

find  little  in  the  poetic  literature  of  our  language  to  detain  our 
attention. 

1 8.  It  was  small  tyranny  for  a  respectable  wind  to  go  wreaking  its  ven- 

geance on  such  poor  creatures  as  the  fallen  leaves. 

19.  A  baby  was  sleeping; 
Its  mother  was  weeping, 

For  her  husband  was  far  on  the  wild  raging  sea ; 

And  the  tempest  was  swelling 

Round  the  fisherman's  dwelling  ; 
And  she  cried,  "  Dermot  darling,  O  come  back  to  me." 

20.  The  tall  pink  foxglove  bowed  his  head  : 
The  violets  courtesied  and  went  to  bed ; 
And  good  little  Lucy  tied  up  her  hair, 
.And  said,  on  her  knees,  her  favorite  prayer. 

21.  The  breeze  comes  whispering  in  our  ear, 
That  dandelions  are  blossoming  near, 

That  maize  has  sprouted,  that  streams  are  flowing, 

That  the  river  is  bluer  than  the  sky, 

That  the  robin  is  plastering  his  house  hard  by. 

22.  And  the  earth  was  without  form  and  void ;  and  darkness  was  upon 

the  face  of  the  deep. 

23.  Toil  on,  poor  heart,  unceasingly  ; 
And  thou  shalt  find  thy  dreams  to  be 
A  truth  and  noonday  light  to  thee. 

24.  The  seasons  are  caused  by  the  earth's  revolution  about  the  sun, 

combined  with  the  constant  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit. 


REVIEW  79 

25.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident:  that  all  men  are  created 

equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness. 

26.  In  every  deed  of  mischief  he  had  a  heart  to  resolve,  a  head  to  con- 

trive, and  a  hand  to  execute. 

27.  He  sings  to  the  wide  world,  and  she  to  her  nest ; 
In  the  nice  ear  of  nature,  which  song  is  the  best  ? 

28.  My  eyes  are  dim  with  childish  tears, 

Thy  heart  is  idly  stirred, 
For  the  same  sound  is  in  my  ears 
Which  in  those  days  I  heard. 

29.  Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth,  while  the 

evil  days  come  not,  nor  the  years  draw  nigh  when  thou  shalt  say, 
- 1  have  no  pleasure  in  them. 

30.  Beautiful  feet  are  they  that  go 
Swiftly  to  lighten  another's  woe. 

31.  Preceded  by  the  beadle,  and  attended  by  an  irregular  procession  of 

stern-browed  men  and  unkindly  visaged  women,  Hester  Prynne 
set  forth  towards  the  place  appointed  for  her  punishment. 

32.  "  God  save  all  here,"  my  comrade  cries, 

And  rattles  on  the  raised  latch  pin  : 
"  God  save  you  kindly,"  quick  replies 
A  clear,  sweet  voice,  and  asks  us  in. 

33.  The  faun  is  a  marble  image  of  a  young  man,  leaning  his  right  arm 

on  the  trunk  or  stump  of  a  tree ;  one  hand  hangs  carelessly  by 
his  side ;  in  the  other  he  holds  the  fragment  of  a  pipe,  or  some 
such  sylvan  instrument  for  music. 

34.  I  sat  and  watched  her  many  a  day, 

When  her  eyes  grew  dim  and  her  locks  were  gray ; 
And  I  almost  worshiped  her  when  she  smiled 
And  turned  from  her  Bible  to  bless  her  child. 

35.  The  sepulcher  of  Mausolus,  King  of  Caria,  from  the  beauty  and 

magnificence  of  its  structure,  passed  for  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  world. 

36.  The  mighty  shafts  and  pilasters  of  the  Gothic  edifice  rose  like  the 

stems  of  giant  trees  in  a  primeval  forest  from  a  dusky  under- 
growth, spreading  out  and  uniting  their  strong  branches  far  above 
in  the  upper  gloom. 


8O  SIMPLE  ANALYSIS 

37.  "Father,  save  those  at  sea  to-night,"  prays  the  child  from  her 

cradle. 

38.  A  depth  of  thirty  feet  of  soil  has  covered  up  the  Rome  of  ancient 

days,  so  that  it  lies  like  the  dead  corpse  of  a  giant,  decaying  for 
centuries,  with  no  survivor  mighty  enough  to  bury  it,  until  the 
dust  of  all  those  years  has  gathered  slowly  over  its  recumbent 
form  and  made  a  casual  sepulcher. 

39.  That  there  is  yet  much  to  learn  about  electricity  is  evident  to  all 

persons  who  think. 

40.  This  is  the  forest  primeval ;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
Leaped  like  the  roe,  when  he  hears,  in  the  woodland,  the  voice  of 

the  huntsman  ? 

41 .  Out  of  the  bosom  of  the  air, 

Out  of  the  cloud  folds  of  her  garments  shaken, 
Over  the  woodlands  brown  and  bare, 
Over  the  harvest  fields  forsaken, 
Silent  and  soft  and  slow, 
Descends  the  snow. 


PART  II.  — PARTS  OF  SPEECH  AND 
COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

CHAPTER   V.  — WORDS. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Elements  are  classified  according  to  their  uses  in  sentences. 

Words  are  classified  according  to  their  nature. 

The  classes  of  words  thus  made  are  called  parts  of  speech. 

40.    PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  word  man  by  nature  is  substantive,  as  in  The  man 
is  old ;  that  is,  it  is  naturally  fitted  for  use  as  a  substantive 
element  or  base ;  yet  in  the  sentences  A  man  servant  was 
hired  and  The  servant  is  a  man  the  word  man  is  used 
adjectively  ;  in  I've  killed  a  man  its  use  is  objective  ;  and 
in  We  expect  better  treatment  from  a  man  it  is  the  idea 
part  of  an  adverbial  element. 

In  such  a  sentence  as  We  7/  man  the  lifeboat,  man  takes 
the  place  of  provide  with  men,  the  base  of  which  is  pro- 
vide. In  this  case  the  meaning  or  nature  of  man  is 
changed,  so  that  it  may  be  called  a  different  word,  being 
predicative  both  in  use  and  in  meaning.  But  the  word 
man  as  used  in  adjective,  objective,  and  adverbial  elements 
has  the  same  meaning  as  when  it  is  used  substantively. 

As  already  stated,  the  name  of  an  element  is  determined 

by  its  use,  —  that  is,  by  its  relation  to  other  words  ;  so  it 

often  happens  that  an  element  whose  main  word  has  one 

nature  performs  another   kind   of   work   altogether,   and 

p.  c.  GRAM.  —  6  81 


$2  WORDS 

hence  is  named  contrary  to  the  meaning  or  nature  of  its 
main  word. 

Exercise. 

Explain  the  nature  and  the  uses  of  the  underlined  words  in  each  of 
the  following :  — 

1.  Land  turtles  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  born  in  a  foreign  land. 

2.  The  house  dog  lay  before  the  fire. 
The  old  house  still  stands. 

3.  That  bridge  is  dangerous. 

The  bridge  builder  has  two  assistants. 
He  will  bridge  the  river  next  spring. 

4.  This  child  is  pretty. 
This  is  pretty. 

5.  The  engine  house  is  near  our  school. 
We  see  the  engine  as  it  passes  by. 
The  engine  is  useful. 

6.  Silver  is  a  metal. 

I  coated  it  with  silver. 


An  offering  of  silver  is  welcome. 

7.   Come  now. 

Now  is  the  accepted  time. 

We  classify  elements  according  to  their  relations  in 
the  sentence ;  but  we  classify  words  according  to  their 
natures.  These  classes  of  words  are  called  parts  of 
speech. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  word  sheep ;  short ;  flows ; 
quickly  f 

A  part  of  speech  is  a  class  of  words  which  by  nature  are  dis- 
tinguished from  other  words. 


PARTS   OF  SPEECH  83 

The  rain  falls  heavily.     It  patters  on  the  roof. 

What  name  is  used  substantively  in  the  first  sentence  ? 
What  word  in  the  second  sentence  represents  rain  ?  How 
is  it  used  ? 

Exercise. 

Tell  what  the  substantive  base  is  in  each  of  the  six  following  sen- 
tences, and  whether  it  is  a  name  or  a  word  used  instead  of  a  name. 

1.  The  bell  rings.     It  calls  to  school. 

2.  My  brother  is  here.     He  will  remain  long. 

3.  The  teacher  wishes  to  see  you.     She  is  in  her  office. 

There  are  two  classes  of  words  which  are  really  substan- 
tive by  nature ;  namely,  names  of  things,  called  nouns,  and 
a  few  words  often  used  instead  of  these  names,  called  pro- 
nouns. 

The  book  is  lost.     //  cannot  be  found. 

My  hat  is  torn.     It  caught  on  a  hook. 

The  river  has  risen.     //  rose  last  night. 

Here  it  stands  for  one  of  these  nouns  as  well  as  for  an- 
other. 

Washington  crossed  the  Delaware.     He  endured  much. 
Stanley  discovered  Livingstone.     He  acted  bravely. 
The  fireman  fought  the  flames.     He  was  badly  burned. 

Here  he  stands  for  each  of  several  people  equally  well. 

The  number  of  nouns  in  the  language  cannot  be  counted  ; 
for  everything  which  can  be  seen  or  heard  or  touched  or 
tasted  or  thought  of  may  of  course  have  a  name ;  but  as 
the  same  pronouns  may  be  used  for  dozens,  or  even  thou- 
sands, of  nouns,  there  are  only  a  few  pronouns. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  are  words  which  are  substantive  by  nature. 


CHAPTER   VI.— NOUNS. 

SYNOPSIS. 

A  noun  is  a  name. 

By  nature  it  is  a  substantive  element  or  base,  but  it  may  be  used  in 
other  ways. 

Its  modifiers  are  adjective  elements. 
•  Nouns  are  classified  as  proper  or  common. 

Nouns  applied  to  objects  of  one  sex  only  are  called  gender  nouns. 

Inflections  due  to  the  number  of  objects  represented  are  number 
inflections  ;  inflections  due  to  use  are  case  inflections. 

41.    DEFINITION  OF  NOUNS. 
A  noun  is  a  name. 
Give  some  examples  of  nouns. 

Exercise. 

Put  each  of  the  following  nouns  into  a  sentence ;  tell  why  it  is  a 
noun  and  how  it  is  used  in  the  sentence. 

1.  man                       6.    picture  n.  flavor 

2.  table                      7.    virtue  12.  committee 

3.  horse                     8.    sunrise  13.  office 

4.  country                 9.    skating  14.  ocean 

5.  study                   10.    dishonesty  15.  height 

42.     CLASSES  OF  NOUNS. 

There  are  thousands  of  nouns,  yet  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  each  object  has  a  name  of  its  own. 

EXAMPLES.     A  boy  sat  on  the  chair  by  the  window,  and  watched 
with  longing  eyes  the  crowd  on  the  pavement  below. 

Each  of  these  nouns  might  be  applied  equally  well  to  any  boy,  chair, 
window,  eyes,  crowd,  or  pavement,  and  is  not,  therefore,  the  name  par- 
ticularly applying  to  the  object  here  mentioned. 

84 


CLASSES   OF  NOUNS  85 

Only  a  few  of  the  many  namable  objects  have  particular 
names,  the  rest  being  known  by  class  names  only.  These 
class  names  are  called  common  nouns. 

But  some  objects,  chiefly  persons  or  places,  have  par- 
ticular names  which  apply  to  them  as  individuals,  not  as 
members  of  a  class. 

EXAMPLES.  John  met  Grace  at  the  Capitol  on  Wednesday,  and 
took  her  to  Trinity  Church  to  hear  Bishop  Potter 
lecture  on  St.  Paul's  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Crete. 

Each  underlined  word  above  is  a  name  applied  to  this  particular 
person,  place,  or  day  of  the  week,  and  not  to  all  of  a  class. 

Such  words  are  particular  names  or  proper  nouns. 

The  particular  name  of  an  individual  object  is  a  proper  noun. 
The  class  name  applied  to  each  of  a  number  of  objects  is  a  common 
noun. 

A  proper  noun  should  always  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

But  for  this  rule  of  capitalization,  there  would  be  no 
need  of  classifying  nouns. 

Exercise. 
Which  of  the  following  are  common,  and  which  proper  nouns  ? 


I. 

boy 

8. 

bureau 

15- 

Pansy 

2. 

Charles 

9- 

star 

16. 

Idaho 

3- 

Philadelphia 

10. 

Venus 

17- 

Europe 

4- 

river 

ii. 

fruit 

18. 

bird 

5- 

Tiber 

12. 

Christmas 

19. 

Washington 

6. 

city 

13- 

Robin 

20. 

Atlantic 

7- 

June 

14. 

Louise 

21. 

Pyrenees 

Write  from  dictation  sentences  like  the  following,  putting  capital 
letters  in  the  proper  places :  — 


86  NOUNS 

1 .  Christopher  Columbus,  the  discoverer  of  America,  was  a  native  of 

Genoa,  Italy. 

2.  The  Romans  under  Julius  Caesar  conquered  the  Britons  about  fifty 

years  before  Christ. 

The  use  of  a  noun  often  determines  whether  it  should 
be  called  proper  or  common. 

EXAMPLES.     Mr.  Wind  and  Madam  Rain  disputed  one  day. 

Day  donned  her  fairest  robes  to  greet  her  lover,  Sun. 
while  sulky  Night  stole  silently  away. 

Day,  night,  sun,  wind,  and  rain,  usually  regarded  each  as  a  member 
of  a  class,  are  here  regarded  as  names  of  persons. 

If  a  noun,  usually  common,  is  thus  regarded  as  the  name 
of  an  individual,  the  thing  named  is  said  to  be  personified. 
A  noun  so  used  is  often  begun  with  a  capital  letter. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  whether 
each  is  proper  or  common  :  — 

1.  Pussy  sits  beside  the  fire, 
How  can  she  be  fair? 

In  walks  little  Doggie, 
"  Pussy,  are  you  there  ?  " 

2.  The  old  gray  puss  and  the  young  dog  lay  asleep  before  the  fire. 

3.  O  eloquent,  just,  and  mighty  Death  !  whom  none  could  advise,  thou 

hast  persuaded. 

4.  So  spake  the  grisly  Terror. 

5.  The  child  showed  his  fright  by  turning  very  white. 

6.  Before  mine  eyes  in  opposition  sits 
Grim  Death,  my  son  and  foe. 

7.  Where  eldest  Night 

And  Chaos,  ancestor  of  Nature,  hold 
Eternal  anarchy  amidst  the  noise 
Of  endless  wars. 

8.  Accuse  not  nature  :  she  has  done  her  part, 
Do  thou  but  thine. 

9.  Hope  elevates,  and  joy  brightens  his  crest. 


GENDER  87 

43.    GENDER 

Man.     Woman. 

A  noun  may  indicate  the  sex  of  the  person  or  animal 
which  it  represents.  Such  nouns  are  called  gender  nouns. 

The  genders  of  nouns,  like  the  sexes  which  they  indi- 
cate, are  two  ;  namely,  masculine  gender,  applied  to  males  ; 
and  feminine  gender,  applied  to  females. 

Many  grammarians  mention  also  common  gender,  ap- 
plied to  objects  of  either  sex,  as  teacher,  people,  crowd,  etc.  ; 
and  neuter  gender,  applied  to  objects  without  sex.  But  as 
such  nouns  do  not  indicate  sex,  it  is  enough  to  say  of  them 
that  they  are  not  gender  nouns. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  gender  nouns  from  the  following,  and  tell  of  each  whether 
it  is  masculine  or  feminine. 

boy                         goose  queen 

stone                       gander  king 

chair                       shepherd  he-goat 

girl                         shepherdess  she-goat 

heiress                   abbot  widow 

hero                        emperor  maid 

heroine                  abbess  manservant 

duck                       empress  servant 

drake                      pupil  cat 

A  noun  which  indicates  the  sex  of  the  object  referred  to  is  a  gender 
noun. 

(For  treatment  of  masculine  and  feminine  forms,  see 
pages  283-284.) 

44.     NUMBER. 

Our  dog  sat  at  the  window  and  looked  at  the  dogs  in  the 

street. 
A  change  in  the  form  of  the  word  from  dog  to  dogs 


88  NOUNS 

indicates  a  change  in  its  meaning  from  one  to  more  than 
one. 

Book,  the  ordinary  form  of  the  word,  means  one  book ; 
by  changing  this  form  to  books,  more  than  one  is  indi- 
cated. Books  means  more  than  one  book. 

Many  common  nouns  are  altered  in  form  to  express 
more  than  one  object  of  the  same  kind.  The  ordinary 
form  of  most  nouns  is  applied  to  one  object. 

A  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  to  show  whether  it  means  one 
object,  or  more  than  one,  is  a  number  inflection. 

A  large  proportion  of  English  nouns  are  changed  in 
form  to  show  number. 

EXAMPLES.         SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

book  books 

lamb  lambs 

church  churches 

There  are,  however,  many  nouns  whose  ordinary  form  is 
used  to  represent  both  the  singular  and  the  plural  ideas. 

EXAMPLES,    deer  heathen          brace  shot          yoke 

trout  sail  cannon          head          dozen 

Many  of  these,  however,  are  sometimes  changed  to 
plural  forms. 

EXAMPLE.     My  bag  was  full  of  shot. 
Seven  shots  were  heard. 

Some  nouns  are  used  (at  least  in  their  usual  meanings) 
only  in  the  plural  form. 

EXAMPLES,     dregs  tweezers  victuals  antipodes 

hysterics  ashes  entrails  oats 

shears  tidings  annals  premises 

goods  trousers  nuptials  spectacles 

wages  tongs  archives  forceps 

scissors  thanks  amends  clothes 


NUMBER  INFLECTION  89 

The  following  nouns  are  spelled  like  plural  forms,  but 
each  means  only  one  thing  :  - 

economics  physics 

politics  summons 

molasses  billiards 

news  optics 

mathematics  gallows 

mumps  measles 

A  noun  which  by  its  form  indicates  one  object,  is  singular  in  form. 
A  noun  which  by  its  form  indicates  more  than  one  object,  is  plural  in 
form. 


There  were  many  mackerel  in  the  harbor. 

Mackerel,  although  not  changed  from  the  ordinary  form, 
means  in  this  connection  more  than  one ;  the  whole  ex- 
pression many  mackerel  represents  a  plural  idea. 

It  is  often  important  to  know  whether  the  idea  repre- 
sented by  a  substantive  element  is  singular  or  plural, 
because  different  forms  of  the  asserterand  of  the  predi- 
cate verb  may  be  required  in  the  two  cases. 

EXAMPLES.     The  man  is  going. 
The  men  are  going. 

Usually  that  form  of  the  asserter  or  predicate  verb  is 
used  which  suits  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  subject. 
EXAMPLE.  —  A  man  and  a  boy  were  seated  near  us. 

Here  man  and  boy  are  singular  forms,  but  the  idea  contained  in  the 
whole  subject  is  plural. 

Twenty  eggs  is  a  large  setting. 
Twenty  eggs  were  broken. 

In  the  first  case,  though  the  form  of  the  noun  is  plural, 
the  idea  is  of  one  group. 


QO  NOUNS 

My  spectacles  are  broken. 

In  this  sentence  the  number  form  of  the  noun  controls 
the  form  of  the  asserter,  although  the  idea  is  apparently 
singular ;  but  really  the  idea  was  originally  plural  (two 
lenses). 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences ;  tell  which  have 
number  forms,  and  which  form  is  here  used ;  and  tell,  if  you  can, 
whether  one  or  more  than  one  is  meant  by  the  nouns  which  have  no 
number  inflection. 

1 .  The  hunter  saw  ten  deer  in  the  valley. 

2.  I  will  give  thee  the  heathen  for  thine  inheritance. 

3.  The  cannon  thundered  from  the  hill. 

4.  My  scissors  are  lost. 

5 .  The  tongs  fell  with  a  clash  to  the  floor. 

6.  The  bay  was  crowded  with  sails. 

7.  The  children  were  ill  with  measles. 

8.  The  hunter  sent  his  friend  a  brace  of  pheasants. 

9.  A  fine  yoke  of  oxen  toiled  slowly  up  the  hill. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

group  groups 

flock  flocks 

crowd  crowds 

shoal  shoals 

The  singular  form  of  some  nouns  is  applied  to  a  number 
of  objects  regarded  as  a  single  collection,  and  the  plural 
form  is  applied  to  a  number  of  such  collections. 

Supply  plurals  to  the  following  nouns  :  — 

SINGULAR. 

congregation  people  council          regiment 

multitude  parliament  nation  fleet 

A  collective  noun  is  a  noun  whose  singular  form  denotes  a  collection 
of  objects. 


RULES  FOR    THE   SPELLING   OF  PLURAL  FORMS       91 


45.     RULES   FOR   THE   SPELLING  OF  PLURAL   FORMS. 

We  learn  about  number  in  nouns  partly  because  the 
changes  in  form  to  indicate  number  make  it  necessary  to 
have  rules  for  spelling. 

The  plural  of  most  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  s  or 
es  to  the  singular. 
EXAMPLES. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

book  books  picture         pictures 

table  tables  fox  foxes 

writer  writers  stitch         -  stitches 

The  plural  of  sortie  nouns  whose  singular  ends  in  f 
or  fe  is  formed  by  changing  the  termination  to  ve,  and 

adding  s. 

EXAMPLES. 

SINGULAR  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

sheaf  sheaves  beef  beeves 

self  selves  wife  wives 

loaf  loaves  leaf  leaves 

life  lives  thief  thieves 

calf  calves  half  halves 

knife  knives  elf  elves 

wolf  wolves  shelf  shelves 

wharf  wharves 

Other  such  nouns  form  their  plurals  regularly. 

EXAMPLES.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

grief  griefs 

reef  reefs 

skiff  skiffs 

The  plural  of  letters,  figures,  and  signs  is  formed  by 
adding  an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  to  the  singular. 
EXAMPLES.     B's,  nVs,  1's,  4's,  +'s. 


92  NOUNS 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  add  s  to 
form  the  plural;  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant change  y  to  i  and  add  es  to  form  the  plural. 

EXAMPLES,     attorney  attorneys  cherry  cherries 

monkey  monkeys  berry  berries 

pulley  pulleys  lily  lilies 

kidney  kidneys  daisy  daisies 

journey  journeys  city  cities 

donkey  donkeys  glory  glories 

valley  valleys  country  countries 

joy  joys  sixty  sixties 

46.    SPELLING  OF   IRREGULAR  PLURAL  FORMS. 

Owing  to  the  number  of  sources  from  which  our  words 
are  derived,  there  are  many  irregularities  in  the  formation 
of  plurals.  Even  among  nouns  which  seem  to  follow  the 
rules,  changes  of  spelling  and  exceptions  are  frequent ; 
many  nouns  appear  to  be  governed  by  no  rule. 

EXAMPLES,     man  men  foot  feet 

The   plurals  of  three  nouns  end  in  en,  an  old   Saxon 

form :  — 

ox  oxen 

brother  brethren 

child  children 

Some  nouns  of  Latin  origin  retain  their  old  Latin 
plural  forms. 

EXAMPLES,     terminus        termini        axis  axes 

datum  data  stratum  strata 

radius  radii  amanuensis        amanuenses 

A  few  nouns  derived  from  the  Greek  also  retain  their 
Greek  plural  forms. 

EXAMPLES,     analysis  analyses        phenomenon       phenomena 

automaton       automata 


PLURAL   FORMS 


93 


It  is  advisable  to  know  how  to  spell  the  plurals  of  the 
following  nouns :  — 


potato 

potatoes 

. 

1  geniuses 

buffalo 

buffaloes 

genius 

I  genii 

motto 

mottoes 

f  vertexes 

vertex 

j 

hero 

heroes 

L  vertices 

echo 

echoes 

f  indexes 

in  HP  v 

j 

mosquito 

mosquitoes 

lilviCA. 

L  indices 

negro 

negroes 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

tomato 

tomatoes 

memorandum 

memoranda 

torpedo 
volcano 

torpedoes 
volcanoes 

formula 

f  formulas 
|  formulae 

alto 
solo 

altos 
solos 

appendix 

f  appendixes 
t  appendices 

cuckoo 

cuckoos 

larva 

larvae 

cameo 

cameos 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

halo 

halos 

focus 

foci 

piano 

pianos 

goose 

geese 

portfolio 

portfolios 

mouse 

mice 

ratio 

ratios 

staff 

staves 

47.   REVIEW. 


Exercise. 


Give  the  singular  forms  of  the  following  nouns :  — 


bevies 

feet 

beeves 

oases 

Ps 

men 

journeys' 

cases 

sheep 

wolves 

dairies 

ladies 

brothers 

oxen 

t's 

X's 

attorneys 

pictures 

calves 

books 

Give  the  plural  forms  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

rose  wife  cannon  school 

monkey  goose  salmon  navy 

cherry  woman  y  chief 

lily  moose  audience  calf 

half  pair  9  pulley 


94  NOUNS 

Give  five  nouns  that  form  their  plurals  by  adding  s  or  es  ;  five  nouns 
that  form  their  plurals  by  changing/ or  fe  to  ves  ;  five  nouns  that  form 
their  plurals  by  changing  y  to  ies ;  five  nouns  that  form  their  plurals  by 
adding  s  to  final  y ;  three  nouns  whose  plurals  end  in  en ;  five  nouns 
that  form  their  plurals  by  changes  within  the  words ;  five  collective 
nouns  and  their  plurals. 


48.  PLURALS  OF  TITLES  AND  COMPOUNDS. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Mr.  Jones  Messrs.  Jones 

Dr.  Brown  Drs.  Brown 

Miss  Fox  Misses  Fox 

The  plural  of  a  noun   preceded  by  a  title  is  usually 
formed  by  pluralizing  the  title  only. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Mrs.  Brown  Mrs.  Browns 

A  noun  preceded  by  the  title  Mrs.  is  itself  pluralized, 
the  title  remaining  unchanged. 

The  plural  of  most  compound  terms  is  formed  by 
pluralizing  the  form  of  the  chief  word. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

EXAMPLES,    court-martial  courts-martial 

father-in-law  fathers-in-law 

son-in-law  sons-in-law 

school-teacher  school-teachers 

rosebush  rosebushes 

49.     CASE. 

The  young  cat  played  with  the  old  cat's  ears. 

The  form  of  the  word  cat  is  changed  to  indicate  its 
adjective  relation  to  ears. 


CASE  95 

The  nouns  of  our  language  allow  little  inflection  to  indi- 
cate the  relation  of  one  word  to  another. 

NOTE.  —  French  nouns  have  no  inflection  to  show  relation.  A  Frenchman 
does  not  say  My  wife's  sister,  but  says  instead,  The  sister  of  my  wife.  Instead  of 
My  brother's  wife's  sister,  he  says  The  sister  of  the  wife  of  my  brother. 

[The  horse  of  the  butcher  is  lame.]  means  [The  butcher's 

horse  is  lame.] 
[Shoes  for  children  are  cheap.]  means  [Children's  shoes 

are  cheap.] 
[The  rays  of  the  sun  are  hot.]  means  [The  sun's  rays 

are  hot.] 
[Books  by  Stevenson  are  popular.]  means  [Stevenson's 

books  are  popular.] 

A  noun  which  in  its  ordinary  form  would  be  placed 
after  its  principal  as  the  idea  word  of  an  adjective  phrase, 
frequently  changes  its  form  when  used  as  an  adjective  word 
modifier  placed  before  its  principal. 

A  change  in  the  form  of  a  noun  to  indicate  the  relation  of  the  noun  to 
other  words  is  a  case  inflection. 

A  noun  whose  form  has  been  changed  to  show  its  adjec- 
tive use  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  of  a  noun  which  shows  its  adjective 
relation  to  the  principal  before  which  it  is  placed. 

The  possessive  form  of  a  singular  noun  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s  to  the  ordinary  form. 

NOTE.  —  A  few  writers,  however,  add  only  the  apostrophe  if  the  ordinary  form 
ends  in  s. 

The  possessive  form  of  a  plural  noun  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  an  apostrophe  and  s  to  the  ordinary  plural 
form,  unless  this  ordinary  form  itself  ends  in  s,  in  which 
case  the  apostrophe  only  is  added. 


96  NOUNS 

EXAMPLES.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.       PLURAL. 

Ordinary  form,      child  children  boy  boys 

Possessive  form,     child's  children's  boy's         •  boys1 

The  tabulated  arrangement  of  the  number  and  case  forms  of  the  noun 
is  called  the  declension  of  the  noun. 

The  ordinary  form  when  used  as  subject  base,  or  as  idea 
word  in  an  assertive  phrase,  is  usually  said  to  be  the  nomi- 
native case ;  when  used  as  object,  or  as  idea  word  in  a 
prepositional  phrase,  it  is  said  to  be  the  objective  case. 
But  the  forms  of  English  nouns  are  not  altered  for  these 
uses,  so  that  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  all  that  need 
be  learned. 

NOTE.  —  In  this  respect  English  differs  from  Latin  and  also  from  German. 

LATIN.  ENGLISH.  USE. 

Nominative.  frater  brother  Subject  base 

Genitive.  fratris  of  a  brother  Possessive  adjective  use 

Dative.  fratri  to  or  for  a  brother  Indirect  object 

Accusative.  fratrem  brother  Objective  modifier 

Vocative.  frater  O  brother  Independent 

Ablative.  fratre  with  or  from  a  brother         Object  of  preposition 

Exercise  on  Possessive  Forms. 
Write  from  dictation  sentences  like  the  following :  — 

1.  And  children's  children  ever  find  Thy  words  of  promise  sure. 

2.  John's  hat  and  Mary's  coat  were  stolen  last  night  through  the 

maid's  carelessness  in  leaving  the  door  unlatched. 

3.  The  bird's  distress  was  evident  by  her  cries,  whereas  the  cat's  en- 

joyment was  less  plainly  to  be  seen. 

4.  A  Roman's  life,  a  Roman's  arms,  take  thou  in  charge  this  day. 

5.  The  children's  hospital  has  many  suffering  little  ones. 

6.  The  day's  doings  were  worthy  of  note. 

7.  The  ship's  distress  was  evident  to  the  anxious  watcher's  gaze. 

8.  Men's  hats  and  boys'  caps  were  stolen. 

9.  The  lady's  cape  looked  much  like  all  ladies'  capes  to  me. 
10.  John's  dog  spoiled  Charles's  flower  bed. 


REVIEW   OF  FORMS  97 

Exercise  on  Declension. 
Write  the  declension  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

1.  table  5.  man  9.  Washington  13.    valley 

2.  sheep  6.  woman  10.  ocean  14.    box 

3.  lady  7.  baby  n.  child  15.   knife 

4.  John  8.  horse  12.  ox  16.   tree 

The  possessive  of  compound  terms  is  usually  formed  by 
adding  the  proper  termination  at  the  end  of  the  term. 

EXAMPLES. 

ORDINARY.  POSSESSIVE. 

Mason  and  Dixon  Mason  and  Dixon's 

Sing,    court-martial  court-martial's 

Plur.    courts-martial  courts-martial's 

50.     REVIEW. 

Tell  the  forms  of  nouns  in  the  following  expressions ;  whether  ordi- 
nary singular  or  plural,  or  possessive  singular  or  plural :  — 

1 .  Sisters  and  brothers  have  I  none. 

But  this  man's  father  is  my  father's  son. 

2.  Lucy,  who  was  visiting  her  mother's  relatives,  was  delighted  with 

everything  on  the  farm,  and  particularly  with  the  horses  and 
poultry. 

3.  John's  mother  warned  him  to  be  careful  of  his  little  sister's  toys,  but 

he  forgot,  and  soon  the  Noah's  ark  had  lost  many  animals. 

4.  Hail  to  the  Lord's  Anointed, 
Great  David's  greater  Son  ! 

5.  Hark  !  hark  !  my  soul  !     Angelic  songs  are  swelling 
O'er  earth's  green  fields  and  ocean's  wave-beat  shore. 

6.  The  cat's  fur  stood  up,  and  the  dog's  barking  showed  us  the  cause  of 

her  fear. 

7.  Angels,  sing  on  !  your  faithful  watches  keeping  : 
Sing  us  sweet  fragments  of  the  songs  above  ; 

Till  morning's  joy  shall  end  the  night  of  weeping, 
And  life's  long  shadows  break  in  cloudless  love. 

8.  The  people's  government,  made  for  the  people. 

p.  c.  GRAM.  —  7 


98  NOUNS 

9.    Our  fathers1  God,  to  Thee, 
Author  of  liberty, 
To  Thee  we  sing. 

10.  For  shortness'  sake  I  will  call  it  the  idea  of  Freedom. 

1 1 .  But  life  is  sweet,  though  all  that  makes  it  sweet 
Lessen  like  sounds  of  friends1  departed  feet. 

12.  On  eagles1  wings  immortal  scandals  fly. 

13.  Our  ancestors1  ways  are  not  ours. 

14.  His  great  ancestors  deeds  are  ever  in  his  mouth. 

51.    USES  OF  NOUNS. 
Nouns  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Substantive  use. 

As  subject  base,  often  called  subject  nominative,  or  sub- 
ject of  the  verb. 

EXAMPLES.     The  country  is  beautiful  now. 

Congress  meets  in  Washington. 

II.  Adjective  uses. 

a.  As  idea  word  in  an  adjective  phrase. 
EXAMPLE.     The  flock  of  sheep  were  sheared. 

b.  As  attribute  after  an  asserter. 

EXAMPLES.     We  were  conquerors. 

He  seemed  a  hero  then. 

c.  In  explanation  of  a  previously  mentioned  noun  whose 
meaning  is  the  same,  in  which  case  it  is  called  an  apposi- 
tive. 

EXAMPLE.      Longfellow  the  poet  lived  at  Cambridge. 

d.  In  the  possessive  case,  as  modifier  of  another  noun, 
instead  of  a  prepositional  phrase. 

EXAMPLE.     The  children^  lunch  is  ready. 


USES   OF  NOUNS  99 

e.    Placed  before  another  noun  to  indicate  the  kind. 

EXAMPLES.     The  Georgia  pine. 
An  iron  gate. 

III.  Objective  use. 

As  an  object  after  a  verb. 

EXAMPLE.     Watts  invented  the  steam  engine. 

IV.  Adverbial  uses. 

a.  As  an  adverbial  word  modifier. 

EXAMPLES.     I  went  last  week. 
She  came  home. 

b.  As  an  idea  word  in  an  adverbial  phrase. 

EXAMPLES.     We  slept  on  cots  last  night. 
He  rests  under  the  sod. 

c.  As  an  indirect  object  of  a  verb,  in  which  case  to,  for, 
or  sometimes  of,  could  be  inserted. 

EXAMPLES.     Mary  gave  her  brother  the  book,     (to  her  brother.) 
I  made  Clara  a  shawL     (for  Clara.) 
Why  do  you  ask  John  such  a  question  ?     (of  John.) 

d.  As  a  measure  of  time,  or  of  distance,  or  of  amount ; 
in  which  cases,  also,   some  preposition   could   usually  be 
inserted. 

EXAMPLES.     I  slept  three  hours,     (for  or  during  three  hours.) 
We  walked  seven  miles,     (for  seven  miles.) 
The  harbor  is  two  miles  long,     (by  two  miles.     Long 

is  an  attribute  modified  by  by  two  miles.) 
The  ship   sailed   seven   leagues  an  hour  (over  seven 

leagues  in  each  hour.) 


100  NOUNS 

V.    Independent  uses. 

a.  A  noun  merely  mentioned,  used  as  an  exclamation,  is 
independent,  since  it  is  not  really  an  element  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

EXAMPLES.     Grace  !     Tis  a  charming  sound. 
The  boy  !     Oh,  where  was  he  ? 

b.  A  noun  used  in  directly  addressing  some  one  often 
forms   no    part   of    a   sentence,    and   is   therefore   called 
independent. 

EXAMPLES.     John,  I  want  you. 

Friends,  our  cause  is  lost. 

Most  grammarians  call  any  noun  used  in  direct  address 
independent,  even  though  it  is  really  the  subject  of  an 
imperative  sentence. 

EXAMPLE.    John,  come  here. 

In  such  cases  the  word  you  is  supplied  as  subject  of  the 
verb. 

A  noun  used  as  the  idea  word  in  an  assertive  phrase  is  called  the 
complement  of  the  predicate,  or  an  attribute  of  the  subject. 

EXAMPLE.    The  building  is  a  hotel. 

A  noun  used  as  the  idea  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase  is  called  the 
object  of  the  preposition. 

A  noun  following  another  noun  or  pronoun  to  explain  or  identify  it, 
is  called  an  ap positive. 

An  cuppositive,  together  with  its  modifiers,  is  usually 
inclosed  by  commas. 

EXAMPLE.     Stanley,  the  great  explorer,  returned  to  England. 

Independent  nouns  are  followed  either  by  commas  or 
by  exclamation  points. 

EXAMPLES.     Children  !  I  command  obedience. 
John,  is  it  cold  without? 


REVIEW  101 

The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  usually  sepa- 
rated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma. 

EXAMPLES.  Children,  obey  me. 
Obey  me,  children. 
Come,  children,  to  me. 

52.     REVIEW. 

Tell  the  uses  of  the  nouns  in  the  following  —  whether  substantive, 
adjective,  objective,  adverbial,  or  independent.  (Remember  that  a 
word,  to  be  a  noun,  must  be  capable  of  being  used  as  a  subject  base, 
without  change  of  meaning.) 

1 .  Grapes  ripen  in  the  autumn. 

2.  A  fountain  of  water  sprang  up  in  the  desert. 

3.  Mont  Blanc  is  the  monarch  of  the  Alps. 

4.  The  martial  airs  of  England  encircle  the  earth. 

5.  The  angel  choir  sang  joyously  on  that  natal  day. 

6.  She  looked  a  goddess,  and  she  walked  a  queen. 

7.  Bancroft,  the  great  historian,  lived  to  be  very  old. 

8.  The  officers1  quarters  were  at  the  barracks. 

9.  Milton  wrote  "Paradise  Lost.1' 

10.  We  will  not  fan  the  flames. 

1 1 .  The  boy  studied  his  lesson  intelligently. 

12.  I  promised  Charles  a  ripe  pear. 

13.  We  rode  horseback  fourteen  miles. 

14.  Romans,  countrymen,  and  lovers  !  hear  me  for  my  cause. 

15.  O  judgment  !  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts. 

1 6.  You  voice  my  sentiments  exactly. 

17.  A  horse  !  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  ! 

1 8.  O  coward  conscience,  how  dost  thou  afflict  me  ! 

19.  The  Indians  of  Nova  Scotia  make  beautiful  baskets. 

20.  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

21.  An  ice  house  is  needed  here. 

22.  The  man's  coat  was  ragged. 

23.  The  rich  man  gave  his  children  many  advantages. 

24.  We  rode  many  miles  in  the  rain. 

25.  The  President's  message  was  read  by  the  clerk. 

26.  Columbus,  the  discoverer  of  America,  was  a  courageous  man. 


102  NOUNS 

27.  Those  evening  bells  !  those  evening  bells  ! 
How  many  a  tale  their  music  tells ! 

28.  Give  me  three  grains  of  corn,  mother. 

29.  We  drove  over  the  mountain  in  a  buggy. 

30.  The  sick  child  lay  many  hours  unconscious. 

31.  The  young  fisherman  caught  mackerel  and  cod. 

32.  Florence  Nightingale  was  a  brave  woman. 

33.  We  should  have  started  the  week  before. 

34.  She  seemed  a  creature  fresh  from  the  hand  of  God. 

35.  She  will  be  with  you  Monday. 

36.  The  deed  was  done  yesterday. 

Exercise. 

1.  Give  three  nouns  used  substantively  as  subject  bases. 

2.  Give  three  nouns  used  acljectively  as  objects  of  prepositions. 

3.  Give  three  nouns  used  adjectively  as  attributes. 

4.  Give  three  nouns  used  adjectively  as  appositives. 

5.  Give  three  nouns  used  adjectively  as  possessives. 

6.  Give  three  nouns  used  adjectively  to  indicate  kind. 

7.  Give  three  nouns  used  adverbially  as  objects  of  prepositions. 

8.  Give  three  nouns  used  adverbially  as  indirect  objects  of  verbs. 

9.  Give  three  nouns  used  as  adverbial  word  modifiers. 

10.  Give  three  nouns  used  adverbially  as  measures  of  amount,  dis- 

tance, or  time. 

11.  Give  three  nouns  used  objectively  as  objects  of  verbs. 

12.  Give  three  nouns  used  independently  in  exclamation. 

13.  Give  three  nouns  used  independently  in  direct  address. 


53.     REVIEW. 

So  far,  the  only  adjective  modifiers  that  have  been 
mentioned  are  modifiers  of  a  subject  base.  But  the 
modifier  of  a  noun  is  always  called  an  adjective  modifier, 
or  element,  no  matter  how  the  noun  is  used. 

Any  modifier  of  a  noun  is  called  an  adjective  element. 

EXAMPLE.     This  piece  of  seasoned  wood  will  do. 
Seasoned  is  a  modifier  of  wood,  which  is  the  object  of  a  preposition 
in  an  adjective  phrase.    The  office  which  the  phrase  performs  is  adjective, 


RE  VIE  W 


103 


but  wood,  being  substantive  by  nature,  is  a  noun.     Hence  its  modifier 
seasoned  is  an  adjective  element. 

The  giving  a  full  account  of  a  word,  including  its  class,  its  form, 
and  its  use,  is  called  parsing. 

In  parsing  a  noun,  follow  the  subjoined  outline  :  — 


Nouns 


Forms 


Uses 


a. 


|  Proper 
\  Common 


f  ^      -,  f  Masculine 

.   I  Gender  nouns 
b.  •{  I  Feminine 


Classes 


Not  gender  nouns 

( Singular 
Based  on  meaning-!  Plural 

I  Ordinary 

Based  on  relation     Binary 
I  Possessive 
Substantive 
Adjective 
Objective 
Adverbial 
Independent 
Modifiers  —  Adjective  elements 


Exercise. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  nouns  which  they 
contain :  — 

1 .  Three  friends,  the  guests  of  summer  time, 
Pitched  their  white  tent  where  sea  winds  blew. 

2.  One,  with  head  scarce  silvered,  bore 
A  ready  credence  in  his  looks. 

3.  Each  day's  tide  water  washed  them  clean  away. 

4.  From  world  to  world  his  couriers  fly, 
Thought-winged  and  shod  with  fire. 

5 .  There  I  saw,  in  my  dream,  that  on  the  morrow  he  got  up  to  go  forward. 


104  NOUNS 

6.  But  Christian  had  a  shield  in  his  hand. 

7.  He  said  that  a  terrible  conscience  is  an  unmanly  thing. 

8.  The  general  moves  to-day  with  his  army. 

9.  I  had  sunshine  all  the  rest  of  the  way,  and  also  through  the  Valley 

of  the  Shadow  of  Death. 

10.  There  the  enemy's  infantry  was  posted. 

1 1 .  The  little  town,  which  a  moment  before  had  seemed  to  sleep  so 

peacefully  on  that  Sabbath  morn,  was  now  wreathed  in  battle 
smoke  and  swarming  with  troops  hurrying  to  their  positions. 

12.  Our  left  wing  consisted  of  Wharton's  brigade. 

13.  The  Norman  barons  had  many  traits  which  pleased  the  native  Irish. 

14.  In  violent  storms  steamers  cannot  make  any  headway,  and  it  becomes 

necessary  to  steam  slowly. 

15.  I  brought  him  to  my  nurse's  cabin. 

1 6.  This  order  was  carried  out  to  the  letter. 

17.  "You,  madam  ! "  said  he,  "you  have  money." 

1 8.  You  know,  dear  girls,  the  rest. 

19.  The  negro  was  a  new  element  in  this  country. 

20.  Mr.  Parnell  proposed  that  the  British  Parliament  should  retain  in 

its  own  hands  some  power. 

21.  The  Sunday  law  forbids  the  opening  of  some  shops  on  Sunday. 

22.  The  scene  around  me  was  so  beautiful  that  I  scarcely  noticed  their 

absence. 

23.  When  Mr.  Gladstone  became  Prime  Minister,  the  Khedive  was  a 

puppet  in  the  hands  of  the  British. 

24.  Congress  meets  soon. 

25.  The  multitude  were  eagerly  pursuing  pleasure. 

(For  agreement  and  government  of  nouns,  see  Chapter 
XVI,  page  226.) 

54.   CAUTIONS. 

I.    Do  not  omit  the  apostrophe  in  writing  the  possessive 
case  of  a  noun. 

Write  from  dictation  sentences  like  the  following :  — 

1.  Charles's  hat  and  James's  coat  were  stolen  from  the  front  hall. 

2.  I  found  a  bird's  nest  under  the  maple  tree. 

3.  The  kitten's  basket  was  placed  near  the  stove. 


CAUTIONS  IO5 

4.  Our  country's  flag  floats  to  the  breeze. 

5.  At  the  end  of  the  three  days'  journey  we  were  tired. 

6.  The  man's  leg  was  broken. 

7.  The  men's  boots  were  taken  away  by  the  porter. 

8.  '•  The  Children's  Hour  "  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Longfellow's 

poems. 

II.    Do  not  use  the  possessive  sign  with  plural  nouns 
which  are  not  possessive  in  meaning. 

Write  from  dictation  sentences  like  the  following :  — 

1.  That  row  of  houses  belongs  to  Mr.  Smith. 

2.  Pens  and  envelopes  lay  ready  for  use. 

3.  Boots  and  shoes  sold  here. 


CHAPTER  VII.  —  ADJECTIVES. 
SYNOPSIS. 

An  adjective  by  nature  modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

The  modifier  of  an  adjective  is  an  adverbial  element. 

Adjectives  are  classified  as  common  or  proper.  There  are  also  three 
special  classes :  relative  or  conjunctive,  interrogative,  and  pronominal. 

Many  adjectives  are  inflected  to  denote  different  degrees  of  the 
quality  they  represent.  This  inflection  is  based  on  meaning,  and  is 
called  comparison. 

55.     DEFINITION   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

The  wise  man  will  not  act  hastily. 
He  who  waits  is  a  wise  man. 

In  the  first  sentence,  wise  is  an .  adjective  element,  be- 
cause it  modifies  the  substantive  base,  man.  In  the  sec- 
ond, wise  modifies  the  attribute  man,  which  is  a  noun  used 
adjectively.  But  though  used  adjectively  here,  the  word 
man  is  still  a  noun,  so  we  still  call  its  modifier,  wiset  an 
adjective  element. 

We'll  man  the  boat  quickly. 

Here  man  is  not  a  noun,  for  it  is  used  as  a  predicate 
verb,  and  could  not  be  used  as  a  substantive  base  without 
changing  its  meaning ;  hence  its  modifiers  are  adverbial 
and  objective,  instead  of  adjective. 

Nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  substantive  in  nature, 
are  modified  by  adjective  elements.  A  word  which 
modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun  is,  then,  an  adjective  element. 


DEFINITION  OF  ADJECTIVES  IO/ 

and  those  words  whose  natural  use  is  to  serve  as  adjective 
word  elements  are  called  adjectives. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  whose  nature  fits  it  to  modify  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun. 

Be  careful  to  distinguish  correctly  between  the  terras 
adjective  on  the  one  hand  and  adjective  element  or  adjec- 
tive modifier  on  the  other.  An  adjective  is  always  a 
word;  it  is  an  adjective  because  of  its  nature  or  meaning. 
An  adjective  modifier  or  element  is  such  because  of  its 
use  ;  it  may  be  one  word  or  it  may  consist  of  several  words. 
An  adjective  is  usually  an  adjective  modifier,  but  an  ad- 
jective modifier  may  or  may  not  be  an  adjective. 

Exercise. 

In  the  following  select  (i)  the  adjectives  and  (2)  the  adjective 
modifiers :  — 

1.  These  old  trees  of  yours  need  much  attention. 

2.  John's  kite  is  large  and  heavy. 

3.  I  found  three  little  kittens  with  blue  eyes. 

4.  The  money  which  you  found  was  mine. 

5.  The  new  church  which  they  are  building  is  of  brick. 

6.  A  bird,  tiny  but  fearless,  alighted  near  me. 

7.  Big,  black,  dangerous-looking  clouds  gathered. 

The  ordinary  position  for  an  adjective  is  before  the 
noun  which  it  modifies. 

EXAMPLES.     The  four  infirm  old  men  walked  slowly. 

Often,  however,  an  adjective  following  an  asserter  modi- 
fies the  subject,  and  is  called  an  attribute  of  the  subject, 
an  attribute  adjective,  or  a  predicate  adjective. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  old. 
He  wasUl. 


108  ADJECTIVES 


56.     CLASSES   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

As  there  are  two  classes  of  nouns,  common  and  proper, 
which  are  distinguished  from  each  other  because  of  the 
fact  that  proper  nouns  are  always  begun  with  capital 
letters,  so  the  same  distinction  is  made  in  classifying 
adjectives. 

Adjectives  that  are  derived  from  proper  nouns  are  called  proper 
adjectives. 

A  proper  adjective  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

EXAMPLES.    An  American  citizen. 
A  European  tour. 


Congress  passed  a  law.     This  same  law  caused  the  trouble. 
Congress  passed  a  law,  which  same  law  caused  the  trouble. 

Which  is  an  adjective  modifying  laiv,  but  it  is  also  a 
subordinate  connective,  showing  the  relation  of  the  subor- 
dinate clause  to  its  principal. 

There  is  a  class  of  adjectives  which,  besides  being  used 
as  adjectives,  are  employed  as  subordinate  connectives  to 
show  relation.  Adjectives  so  used  are  called  relative  or 
conjunctive  adjectives. 

EXAMPLES.     I  do  not  know  which  sister  I  met. 

Bring  me  whatever  thread  you  can  find. 

A  relative  adjective  is  an  adjective  used  also  as  a  subordinate 
connective. 

Which  and  what,  with  their  compound  forms,  as  which- 
ever, whatever,  etc.,  are  the  only  relative  adjectives  in  our 
language. 


CLASSES   OF  ADJECTIVES  109 

Any  form  of  an  adjective  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
noun  which  it  would  modify  if  the  whole  expression  were 
given. 

EXAMPLES.     The  bravest  are  the  tenderest. 
The  loving  are  the  daring. 
Many  are  called  but  few  are  chosen. 
Those  are  John's. 

Those  adjectives  which  are  frequently  used  instead  of  nouns  are  some- 
times called  pronominal  adjectives. 

EXAMPLE.     This  house  is  my  property. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  pronominal  adjectives  in  the  following  expressions,  and 
in  each  case  write  a  sentence  using  the  same  word  as  a  pronoun. 

1.  These  pears  are  not  ripe. 

2.  This  door  is  open. 

3.  I  desire  that  pen. 

4.  Are  those  grapes  sour  ? 

5.  Mr.  Brown  is  not  so  good  a  teacher  as  Mr.  White  ;  the  former  gen- 

tleman was  learned,  but  the  latter  gentleman  knows  how  to  im- 
part. 

6.  Each  pupil  has  a  desk. 

7.  Either  cane  will  do. 

8.  Neither  child  is  well  yet. 

9.  Some  people  believe  in  ghosts. 

10.  Many  people  love  him. 

11.  All  men  have  their  faults. 

12.  Such  persons  deserve  their  fate. 

13.  Both  disputants  were  in  the  wrong. 

14.  Few  soldiers  survived  the  battle. 

15.  The  first  arrival  shall  have  the  best  seat. 

1 6.  Little  good  was  accomplished. 

17.  Give  me  enough  money  to  live  on. 

1 8.  Much  property  descended  to  the  heir. 

19.  Every  man  loves  something. 
20  Several  guests  have  arrived. 


IIO  ADJECTIVES 

W/iic/t  horse  won  the  race  ? 
What  price  do  you  ask  ? 

These  adjectives  not  only  modify  the  nouns  which  they 
precede,  but  are  also  used  to  indicate  that  the  sentence  is 
interrogative.  An  adjective  so  used  is  called  an  interroga- 
tive adjective. 

An  interrogative  adjective  is  an  adjective  which  indicates  that  the 
sentence  or  clause  which  it  introduces  is  interrogative. 

57.     INFLECTION. 

A  quality  may  exist  in  many  degrees,  which  are  indicated 
by  such  words  as  much,  very,  and  extremely.  When  two 
objects  are  compared,  the  word  more  is  sometimes  used  to 
show  which  object  possesses  the  quality  in  the  higher  de- 
gree. When  three  or  more  objects  are  compared,  the 
highest  degree  is  sometimes  indicated  by  the  word  most. 

Many  adjectives  are  altered  in  form  to  express  these 
three  degrees. 

A  small  box  is  on  the  floor. 
A  smaller  box  is  on  the  table. 
The  smallest  box  is  in  the  drawer. 

This  inflection  of  the  adjective  is  called  its  comparison, 
and  we  speak  of  the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative 
degrees. 

EXAMPLE.     POSITIVE.         COMPARATIVE.          SUPERLATIVE. 
fine  finer  finest 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable,  or  of  two  syllables  with  the 
accent  on  the  first,  are  usually  compared  by  adding  er 
and  est  to  the  positive  form. 


INFLECTION 


III 


Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly. 
EXAMPLES. 


POSITIVE. 

late 

*  (nigh) 
fore 
old 

(forth) 
(aft) 
far 
hind 

(in) 

under 
(out) 

(up) 
top 


COMPARATIVE. 

later  or  latter 
nigher 
former 
older  or  elder 

further 

after 

farther 

hinder 

inner 

outer 
utter 

upper 


SUPERLATIVE. 

latest  or  last 

nighest  or  next 

foremost  or  first 

oldest  or  eldest 
(  furthest  or 
i  furthermost 
j  aftmost  or 
( aftermost 
<  farthest  or 
1  farthermost 
(  hindmost  or 
(  hindermost 
j  inmost  or 
\  innermost 

undermost 

outmost  or  outermost 

utmost  or  uttermost 
j  upmost  or 
\  uppermost 

topmost 


The  three  forms  of  other  adjectives  are  simply  a  set  of 
words  from  various  sources,  resembling  one  another  very 
little,  but  yet  expressing  the  three  degrees  of  the  quality 
by  different  forms. 


POSITIVE. 

COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

good 
ill 

better 
worse 

best 
worst 

bad 

worse 

worst 

little 

less  or  lesser 

least 

much 

more 

most    . 

many 

more 

most 

*  Words  inclosed  in  curves  are  not  adjectives. 


112  ADJECTIVES 

Most  polysyllabic  adjectives  are  not  compared,  but  ex- 
press the  different  degrees  of  quality  by  the  help  of  the 
words  more  and  most. 

EXAMPLE.     Beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 

Most  adjectives  representing  qualities  capable  of  com- 
parison indicate  two  degrees  below  the  positive  by  the 
aid  of  the  words  less  and  least. 

EXAMPLE.     It  is  less  cold  in  spring  than  in  winter,  but  least  cold  in 
summer. 

Some  qualities  are  incapable  of  comparison.  For  ex- 
ample, it  is  incorrect  to  say  deader,  but  the  expression 
more  nearly  dead  is  correct. 

When  two  objects  are  compared,  use  the  comparative 
form,  or  the  word  more- to  express  the  higher  degree  (or 
the  word  less  to  express  the  lower  degree). 

EXAMPLES.     He  is  the  taller  of  the  two. 

He  is  the  more  intelligent  of  the  two. 
Of  the  two,  he  is  the  less  fortunate. 

When  more  than  two  objects  are  compared,  use  the 
superlative  form,  or  the  word  most,  to  express  the  highest 
degree  (or  the  word  least  to  express  the  lowest  degree). 

EXAMPLES.     John  is  the  tallest  of  the  six. 

John  is  the  most  intelligent  of  all. 

John  is  the  least  fortunate  of  the  three  brothers. 

The  comparison  of  an  adjective  is  its  inflection  to  indicate  different 
degrees  of  the  quality  which  it  represents-. 

The  three  degrees  of  comparison  are  the  positive,  the  comparative, 
and  the  superlative. 


REVIEW  113 

An  adjective  in  the  positive  degree  indicates  merely  some  quality  of 
an  object;  in  the  comparative  degree  it  indicates  that  the  object  has 
more  of  that  quality  than  some  other  object ;  in  the  superlative  degree 
it  indicates  that  the  object  has  more  of  that  quality  than  two  or  more 
other  objects. 

Exercise. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  John  is  old,  Charles  is ,  but  Henry  is  the of  the  three 

2.  My  cat  is than  yours. 

3.  I  have  four  sons,  of  whom  John  is  the . 

4.  John  is  the of  the  two  boys. 

In  English  only  two  adjectives  have  number  inflections. 
They  are  this  and  that. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

this  these 

that  those 

Adjectives  indicating  quality  or  kind  are  rarely  used  in 
the  place  of  nouns.  When  so  used  they  may  have  the 
possessive  case  inflection. 

EXAMPLE.     Fear  not  the  wicked's  malice. 


58.     REVIEW. 
A  very  bright  day  came  at  last. 

Very  modifies  the  adjective  bright ;  it  tells  the  degree 
of  the  brightness. 

The  modifier  of  an  adjective,  however,  is  often  similar 
in  form  and  meaning  to  the  adverbial  modifier  of  a  verb, 
and  is,  in  fact,  called  adverbial. 

Any  modifier  of  an  adjective  is  called  an  adverbial  element. 
p.  c.  GRAM.  —  8 


ADJECTIVES 


In  parsing  an  adjective,  observe  the  following  outline  :  — 

f  Proper 
I  Common 
Classes     \          Relative 

Pronominal 
Interrogative 
Positive 

Forms  Comparative 

Superlative 
Ordinary 

Predicate  complement 
Uses  ("  Conjunctive 

b  \  Pronominal 

[  Interrogative 
Modifiers  —  Adverbial  elements 


Adjectives 


Exercise. 

Parse  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  John  is  taller  than  James,  but  James  is  the  better  boy. 

2.  Vital  spark  of  heavenly  flame  ! 
Quit,  O  quit  this  mortal  frame  ! 

3.  How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 

Improve  each  shining  hour, 
And  gather  honey  all  the  day 
From  every  opening  flower  ! 

4.  Her  voice  was  ever  soft, 

Gentle  and  low  —  an  excellent  thing  in  woman. 

5.  White  partridges  ran  whistling  and  clucking  out  of  the  way. 

6.  The  man  was  of  admirable  proportions,  not  tall,  but  powerful.    He 

had  a  strong  face,  almost  negro  in  color,  yet  the  low,  broad  fore- 
head, aquiline  nose,  slanting  eyes,  and  hair  profuse,  straight, 
harsh,  of  metallic  luster,  and  falling  to  the  shoulder  in  many 
plaits,  were  signs  of  origin  impossible  to  disguise. 

7.  The  travelers  limbs  were  numb ;  for  the  ride  had  been  long  and 

wearisome. 


REVIEW  115 

8.  He  saw  instead  a  foreground  which  was  just  as  lovely  —  the  level 

sunlight  lying  like  transparent  gold  among  the  gently  curving 
stems  of  the  feathered  grass  and  the  tall  red  sorrel,  and  the  white 
umbels  of  the  hemlock  lining  the  bushy  hedgerows. 

9.  By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung ; 
By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung. 

10.  Hope  tells  a  flattering  tale, 
Delusive,  vain,  and  hollow. 

1 1 .  The  strangely  assorted  company  consisted  of  an  English  clergy- 

man, an  American  journalist,  a  French  dancing  master,  and  a 
German  student. 

12.  The  first  and  second  miles  were  walked  rapidly ;  but  the  third  and 

fourth  seemed  long  and  wearisome. 

13.  The  ship  made  only  fifteen  miles  an  hour. 

14.  The  murmuring  pines  and  the  hemlocks  stand  like  Druids  of  eld, 

with  voices  sad  and  prophetic. 

15.  The  demands  of  the  tyrant  grew  ever  bolder  and  more  unbearable. 

1 6.  Of  all  sad  words  of  tongue  or  pen, 

The  saddest  are  these,  it  might  have  been. 

17.  Far,  vague,  and  dim, 
The  mountains  swim  ; 

While  on  Vesuvius'  misty  brim, 
With  outstretched  hands, 
The  gray  smoke  stands 
Overlooking  the  volcanic  lands. 

1 8.  Stalwart  and  stately  in  form  was  the  man  of  seventy  winters  ; 
Hearty  and  hale  was  he,  an  oak  that  is  covered  with  snowflakes. 

19.  A  sweeter  woman  ne'er  drew  breath, 
Than  my  son's  wife  Elizabeth. 

20.  And  now  abideth  faith,  hope,  charity,  these  three ;  but  the  greatest 

of  these  is  charity. 

21.  A  grander,  more  inspiring  sight  is  seldom  witnessed. 

22.  The  doctor  pronounced  his  patient  ill  yesterday,  but  worse  to-day. 

23.  The  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he, 

With  large  and  sinewy  hands ; 
And  the  muscles  of  his  brawny  arms 
Are  strong  as  iron  bands. 

24.  There  is  no  sterner  moralist  than  pleasure. 

25.  I  knew  not  which  way  I  should  turn. 


Il6  ADJECTIVES 


59.    CAUTIONS. 

I.  Do  not  use  a  plural  adjective  to  .modify  a  singular 
noun,  or  a  singular  adjective  to  modify  a  plural  noun. 

Select  the  proper  terms  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

This     .  .    ,    £ 
I-  kind  of  nuts  is  very  oily. 

JL  llCSG 

2.  rhls     class  of  people  is  always  ill-bred. 

3.  °*e  sort  of  books  is  expensive. 

4.  You  have  been  reading  two  hours. 

these 

II.  Do  not  use  this  here,  for  this  ;  or  that  there  >  for  that. 

Write  correctly :  — 

That 

1  •    r,,,    ^  A,         rnan  is  lost. 
That  there 

2.  This  here  example  is  difficult. 
This 

3.  That  knife  is  mine. 
That  there 

4.  He  came  to  re  house  a  year  ago. 

this 

III.  Do  not  use  double  comparatives  or  superlatives. 
EXAMPLE.     More  kinder  is  incorrect. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  in  two  different 
ways :  — 

1 .  He  seems  (comparative  of  wise)  than  ever. 

2.  She  is  the  (superlative  of  unhappy}  woman  I  know. 

3.  Mary  has  the  (superlative  of  lovely}  complexion  I  ever  saw. 

4.  The  air  is  (comparative  of  balmy}  to-day  than  it  was  yesterday. 


CAUTIONS  II/ 

Where  good  authors  are  found  using  double  compara- 
tives and  superlatives,  they  are  supposed  to  desire  great 
emphasis.  The  liberty  thus  taken  is  an  example  of  what 
is  called  license.  Such  expressions  were  formerly  much 
more  common  than  now. 

EXAMPLE.     "  This  is  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all." 

IV.  Use  the  comparative  degree  (or  more  or  less)  when 
two  terms  are  compared,  and  the  superlative  (or  most  or 
least)  when  more  than  two  are  compared. 

Write  correctly :  — 

1.  Which  do  you  like  /     er?  pears  or  peaches  ? 

best, 

2.  John  is  the  cleverest  of  the  two  boys. 

cleverer 

IPCC 

3.  Choose  the       5    of  two  evils. 

least 

4.  The  wjses   of  the  three  men  was  in  favor  of  a  compromise. 

wiser 

5.  Lucy  is  the  }arger   of  these  two  girls. 

largest 

6.  Which  is  the  most  beautiful  city,  New  York  or  Washington? 

more 

V.  Do  not  use  a  before  a  vowel  sound  or  an  before  a 
consonant  sound. 

Write  correctly :  — 

A 

1.  L    owl  screeched  in  the  woods. 

An 

2.  My  aunt  gave  me  a    orange. 

an 

A 

3.  hundred  men  marched  by  the  window. 

/\.n 

A 

4.  orphan  boy  was  taken  to  the  asylum. 

An  , 

5.  n  honest  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 
A 


CHAPTER   VIII. —PRONOUNS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  stands  for  a  noun. 

The  noun  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  its  antecedent. 

The  four  classes  of  pronouns  are  adjective,  relative  or  conjunctive, 
interrogative,  and  personal. 

The  speaker  is  called  the  first  person ;  the  person  spoken  to  is 
called  the  second  person ;  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  is  called  the 
third  person. 

Pronouns  are  inflected  to  show  number,  gender,  and  case. 

The  cases  of  pronouns  are  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective. 

A  pronoun  used  as  a  complement  or  as  an  appositive  must  be  of  the 
form  that  it  would  have  if  it  were  in  the  place  of  its  principal. 

60.    ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?     (p.  83.) 

There  are  many  words  which  if  used  with  nouns  are 
adjectives,  but  which  are  frequently  used  without  the 
nouns.  In  the  latter  case  they  really  represent  the  nouns, 
and  are  therefore  pronouns.  These  words  are  called 
adjective  pronouns  when  used  as  pronouns,  and  pro- 
nominal adjectives  when  used  as  adjectives. 

EXAMPLE.     One  man  is  tall.     Pronominal  adjective. 
One  is  short.          Adjective  pronoun. 

These  children  are  good. 
These  are  not. 

This  use  of  a  word  to  represent  the  noun  which  it 
modifies  is  a  good  example  of  the  economical  tendency  of 

1x8 


ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS  1 19 

our  language.  The  omission  of  the  noun  which  has  either 
been  previously  mentioned  or  is  perfectly  understood  is  a 
saving  of  time.  - 

An  adjective  pronoun  is  a  word  which  may  be  used  to  modify  the 
noun  which  it  represents. 

A  few  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

ORDINARY. 

POSSESSIVE. 

this 

these 

one 

one's 

that 

those 

another 

another's 

other 

other's 

latter 

latter's 

former 

former's 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  adjective  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  All  those  in  favor  of  the  motion,  please  say  aye. 

2.  Few,  few  shall  part  where  many  meet. 

3.  Neither  is  correct ;  in  fact,  both  are  wrong. 

4.  Each  of  us  must  try  to  understand. 

5.  Both  of  those  men  were  present  at  the  trial. 

6.  Who  are  these  in  bright  array  ? 

7.  You  may  expect  to  see  such  as  I  am  in  the  assemblies  of  men. 

8.  You  may  repeat  this  as  I  have  told  you. 

9.  John  and  James  went  abroad ;  the  former  stayed  a  year,  while 
the  latter  returned  almost  immediately. 

10.  Some  must  work  while  others  weep. 

1 1 .  This  is  mine  ;  that  is  yours. 

12.  A  barrel  of  apples  came  by  express  to  us,  but  most  of  them 
were  spoiled. 

13.  I  have  enough  to  last  a  month. 

14.  Some  of  these  trees  are  dead  and  must  be  cut  down. 

15.  Both  of  them  were  wrong,  but  neither  was  willing  to  acknowl- 
edge it. 

16.  The  former  subject  has  been  discussed  ;  the  latter  has  not. 

17.  I  do  not  know  which  to  choose, 

18.  No  one  answered  me. 


I2O  PRONOUNS 

61.    RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
The  man  who  entered  the  room  is  the  speaker. 

In  this  sentence  who  shows  the  relation  of  an  adjective 
clause  to  its  principal.  Who  also  stands  for  the  noun  man. 

As  the  noun  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  usually 
precedes  the  pronoun,  it  is  called  the  antecedent  of  the 
pronoun.  In  the  above  sentence,  man  is  the  antecedent 
of  the  pronoun  ivha,  and  is  the  principal  of  the  clause 
which  who  introduces.' 

Five  pronouns,  who,  which,  what,  that,  and  as,  are  used 
to  represent  nouns,  and  to  serve  also  as  subordinate  con- 
nectives. Hence  these  pronouns  are  called  relative  or 
conjunctive  pronouns. 

What  I  do,  you  know. 

What  means  the  thing  which  (or  the  things  which). 
What  is  ar other  example  of  economy  by  the  use  of  a  word 
complex  in  meaning.  It  contains  within  itself  the  ideas 
of  both  the  antecedent  and  its  relation. 

Relative  pronouns  are  not  altered  to  show  number  or 
sex.  Who  varies  to  show  relation,  and  which  and  that 
take  whose  for  a  possessive  form,  but  what  and  as  are 
never  used  as  possessives,  and  do  not  vary  in  form. 

I  do  not  know  who  is  here. 
I  do  not  know  who  he  is. 
I  do  not  know  whose  hat  this  is. 
I  do  not  know  whom  we  met. 
I  do  not  know  to  whom  I  wrote. 

How  is  each  of  these  relative  pronouns  used  ?  What 
form  is  used  as  substantive  element  in  the  subordinate 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  121 

clause  ?  How  else  is  the  same  form  used  ?  What  is  the 
possessive  form  ?  What  form  is  used  as  objective  modi- 
fier of  the  predicate  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause  ?  How 
else  is  the  same  form  -used  ? 

Pronouns  have  three  case  forms.  The  form  which  is 
used  as  substantive  element  or  base,  called  the  nominative 
form,  is  also  employed  when  the  pronoun  is  used  inde- 
pendently, or  as  complement  in  an  assertive  phrase.  The 
form  which  is  used  as  objective  modifier  of  a  verb,  called 
the  objective  form,  is  also  used  as  base  of  the  idea  part  of 
a  prepositional  phrase ;  that  is,  as  object  of  a  preposition. 

Nominative.         who  which  that 

Possessive.  whose  whose  whose 

Objective.  whom  which  that 

Relative  pronouns  are  always  used  as  pronouns  in  the 
clauses  which  as  connectives  they  introduce. 

EXAMPLE.     The  friend  whom  I  loved,  I  lost. 

Whom  is  used  as  objective  modifier  of  the  predicate  base  in  the 
clause  whom  I  loved,  and  it  also  introduces  the  clause. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  serves  as  a  subordinate 
connective. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
what  office  each  serves  in  its  own  clause. 

1 .  We  always  like  those  who  admire  us ;  we  do  not  always  like  those 

whom  we  admire. 

2.  I  have  returned  the  umbrella  which  I  borrowed. 

3.  Take  what  is  given  you  and  be  thankful. 

4.  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear. 

5.  The  child  who  studies  will  learn. 

6.  The  pilgrims  ate  such  food  as  they  could  get. 

7-    They  drove  on  in  spite  of  the  storm  that  raged. 
8.   Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances. 


122  PRONOUNS 

9.   Will  the  boy  whose  name  has  just  been  called  please  stand  ? 

10.  This  is  the  book  of  which  I  spoke. 

1 1 .  The  elm  tree  under  which  Washington  took  command  of  the  army 

still  stands. 

12.  In  the  nest  which  was  high  in  the  apple  tree,  we  found  four  young 

robins. 

13.  Our  remedies  oft  in  ourselves  do  lie 
Which  we  ascribe  to  heaven. 

14.  There  is  a  Reaper  whose  name  is  Death. 

15.  No  tears  dim  the  sweet  look  that  nature  wears. 

1 6.  The  soul  that  slumbers  is  dead. 

17.  He  had  that  delicacy  of  expression  which  has  always  been  thought 

to  indicate  a  sensitive  spirit. 

1 8.  The  book,  through  which  I  glanced  rapidly,  seemed  well  adapted 

for  the  purpose. 

19.  I  remember  what  you  said  to  me. 

The  relative  pronouns  have  compound  forms,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

whoso 

whoever  whichever  whatever 

whosoever  whichsoever  whatsoever 

These  compound  forms  have  no  expressed  antecedent. 
Four  of  them  are  declined  like  the  simple  forms  from 
which  they  are  derived. 

Nominative,  whoever  whichever  whosoever  whichsoever 
Possessive.  whosever  whosever  whosesoever  whosesoever 
Objective.  whomever  whichever  whomsoever  whichsoever 

I  employ  whomever  I  can  get.     (any  person  whom) 

Whomever  is  the  object  of  employ  in  the  principal  clause, 
and  of  can  get  in  the  subordinate  clause.  It  therefore  has 
the  objective  form. 

I  will  employ  ivhoever  will  come,     (any  person  who) 
Whoever  represents  the   entire  idea   any  person    zvho. 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS  12$ 

It  is  the  object  of  will  employ  in  the  principal  clause,  but 
because  it  is  the  subject  of  will  come  in  the  subordinate 
clause  its  form  is  nominative.  In  such  a  case  the  com- 
pound pronoun  always  takes  the  form  suited  to  its  use  in 
the  subordinate  clause. 

These  pronouns  in  the  following   sentences    have  the 
same  uses  as  the  simple  relative  pronouns  :  — 

1 .  Whoever  will,  let  him  partake  of  the  water  of  life  freely. 

2.  All  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye 

even  so  to  them. 

3.  Whatsoever  is  worth  doing,  is  worth  doing  well. 

4.  Whosoever  keepeth  the  law  is  a  wise  son. 

5.  I  will  take  whichever  you  please. 

6.  Whatever  is,  is  right. 


62.     INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Who,  which,  and  what  are  sometimes  employed  to  intro- 
duce questions.  They  represent  nouns  usually  known,  but 
found  only  in  the  answers  to  the  questions  which  they 
introduce.  When  serving  this  purpose,  they  are  called 
interrogative  pronouns. 

EXAMPLES.     Who  is  that  ?    The  commanding  officer  of  the  regiment. 
What    did    the    band    play?      "  The    Star-Spangled 

Banner." 
Which  will  you  have  ?    The  silk  flag. 

Who  has  the  case  forms  whose  and  whom  ;  but  the  in- 
terrogative pronouns  which  and  what  have  no  case  forms, 
and  are  not  used  in  the  possessive. 

The  interrogative  pronoun  has  many  of  the  uses  that  a 
noun  has.  Look  at  the  list  of  the  uses  of  nouns  (pages 


124  PRONOUNS 

98-100),  and   give  sentences  illustrating  all  the  possible 
uses  of  interrogative  pronouns. 

Who  asks  for  a  person,  what  asks  for  a  thing,  which  asks 
for  either  a  person  or  a  thing,  and  usually  offers  a  choice. 

EXAMPLES.     Who  comes  here?     (what  person) 
What  does  he  want?     (what  thing) 
Which  of  us  shall  meet  him  ?     (a  choice  offered) 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  indicates  that  the  sen- 
tence or  clause  in  which  it  occurs  is  interrogative. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  uses  of  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following 
expressions :  — 

1.  What  shall  I  bring  you  from  Europe  ? 

2.  Who  killed  Cock  Robin? 

3.  What  are  the  wild  waves  saying? 

4.  With  whom  were  you  walking? 

5.  Whose  apple  is  the  red  one  ? 

6.  With  whom  were  you  speaking? 

7.  Who  wrote  " Lead,  Kindly  Light? " 

8.  Which  of  these  apples  is  the  best  for  cooking? 

9.  In  whose  care  did  you  say  the  child  was  left? 

10.  What  is  the  name  of  this  flower? 

1 1 .  The  virtues  of  whom  did  he  praise  ? 

12.  What!     Do  you  think  I  am  cruel? 

63.   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

There  are  very  few  pure  pronouns,  for  most  pronouns 
perform  some  other  office  in  the  sentence  besides  filling  the 
places  of  nouns. 

The  ordinary  pure  pronouns  are  /,  you,  he,  with  their 
inflections  or  additional  forms,  as  she,  it,  they,  and  their 
compound  forms,  myself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  itself, 
and  themselves. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  125 

7  talk  to  you  about  her. 

I  represents  the  speaker.  You  represents  the  person 
spoken  to.  Her  represents  the  person  spoken  of. 

We  told  you  of  him. 

Our  friend  found  it  in  your  garden. 

In  the  first  sentence,  which  of  the  pronouns  represents 
the  speaker?  Which  represents  the  person  spoken  to? 
Which  represents  the  person  spoken  of  ?  In  the  second 
sentence,  which  of  the  pronouns  represents  the  speaker  ? 
Which  represents  the  person  spoken  to  ?  Which  repre- 
sents the  thing  spoken  of  ? 

A  pronoun  representing  the  speaker  is  said  to  be  in  the 
first  person  ;  the  pronoun  representing  the  person  spoken 
to  is  in  the  second  person  ;  the  pronoun  representing  the 
person,  or  thing  spoken  of  is  in  the  third  person. 

Person  is  a  distinction  between  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  and 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

The  form  of  a  pure  pronoun  shows  in  which  person  the 
pronoun  is.  These  pronouns  are  therefore  called  personal 
pronouns. 

My  dog  lost  his  collar.     He  lost  it  yesterday. 

My  is  a  pronoun  representing  the  name  of  the  first  per- 
son, which  name,  though  not  mentioned,  is  its  antecedent. 
His  and  he  represent  the  noun  dog,  which  noun  is  called 
their  antecedent.  Likewise,  collar  is  the  antecedent  of  it. 

The  antecedent  for  which  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
second  person  stand  are  very  seldom  mentioned,  but  the 
antecedents  of  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  are  gener- 
ally mentioned  before  the  pronouns. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pure  pronoun  which  by  its  form  indicates  its 
person. 


126  PRONOUNS 

Personal  pronouns  are  used  much  as  nouns  are,  except 
that  it  is  usually  incorrect  to  use  a  simple  pronoun  as  an 
appositive. 

EXAMPLES.  It  is  wrong  to  say,  as  many  do,  "  My  sister  she  went,1' 
or,  "My  brother  he  came,"  or,  "  The  doctor  he 
wrote  a  prescription.'1 

But  the  compounds  are  frequently  so  used  to  strengthen 
or  emphasize  a  statement,  and  the  simple  pronoun  may  be 
repeated  for  the  same  purpose. 

EXAMPLES.     I  myself  assisted.     He  said  it  himself. 
I  hate  him,  him  who  has  injured. me. 
John  himself  said  it. 

Simple  personal  pronouns  showing  the  individuals  for 
which  the  plural  stands  are  sometimes  so  used. 

EXAMPLE.     We,  he  and  I,  went  with  the  crowd. 

The  pronouns  so  used  are  sometimes  called  partitive 
appositives.  What  is  an  appositive  ? 

The  personal  pronouns  change  their  forms  much  more 
than  do  nouns  ;  the  changes  are,  in  some  cases,  so  great 
that  no  one  would  recognize  any  relation  between  two 
forms  of  the  same  pronoun,  and  some  words  grouped  as 
forms  of  the  same  pronoun  are  entirely  different  words. 
/  and  we,  me  and  its,  for  instance,  without  a  letter  in  com- 
mon, are  called  forms  of  the  same  pronoun,  since  they  all 
stand  for  the  first  person. 

FIRST  PERSON  :          I,  my,  mine,  me,  we,  our,  ours,  us. 
SECOND  PERSON  :       you,  your,  yours, 
he,  his,  him. 

THIRD  PERSON:      <  she'  her'  hers' 
it,  its. 

they,  their,  theirs,  them. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


127 


Changes  in  the  forms  of  pronouns  are  made  —  as  in  the 
case  of  nouns  —  to  show  either  changes  of  meaning  or  dif- 
ferent relations  in  the  sentence.  The  changes  based  on 
meaning  include  number  inflection  and  gender  inflection. 

The  two  numbers,  like  those  of  nouns,  are  singular  and 
plural.  One  pronoun  has  three  gender  forms  :  masculine, 
indicating  males ;  feminine,  indicating  females ;  and  neu- 
ter, indicating  usually  objects  without  sex  (or  thought  of 
without  regard  to  sex):  —  he,  she,  it.  These  variations  to 
show  gender  occur  only  in  the  singular  of  the  third  person. 

/  spoke.     Speak  not  of  my  faults.     Speak  to  me. 

Inflections  to  show  relation  give  to  several  pronouns 
the  three  case  forms,  —  the  nominative,  the  possessive, 
and  the  objective. 

For  convenience,  the  inflection  of  the  pronouns  is  given 
in  tabular  form,  called  the  Declension  of  the  Pronoun. 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 


FIRST  PERSON. 

SINGULAR. 

I 

my  or  mine 
me 

SECOND  PERSON. 

SINGULAR. 
you 

your  or  yours 
you 

THIRD  PERSON. 

SINGULAR. 

MASC.       FEM.       NEUT. 
he     she  it 

his     her  or  hers     its 
him  her  it 


PLURAL. 

we 

our  or  ours 

us 


PLURAL. 

you 

your  or  yours 

you 


PLURAL. 

they 

their  or  theirs 

them 


128  PRONOUNS 

The  declension  of  the  pronoun  is  more  troublesome  than 
that  of  nouns,  because  the  noun  has  only  one  form  for  all 
uses  save  the  possessive,  whereas  some  of  the  pronouns 
have  differing  nominative  and  objective  forms  as  well  as 
possessive  forms.  Which  pronouns  are  they  ? 

The  possessive  form  is  usually  required  when  the  pro- 
noun is  used  as  an  adjective  word  modifier. 

The  objective  form  is  required  when  the  pronoun  is  used 
as  the  direct  or  indirect  object  of  an  active  verb,  or  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition  (idea  part  of  a  phrase). 

EXAMPLE.     I  whipped  my  dog  and  hurt  him  badly. 
i  ~^T  ~Y~ 

1.  Nominative  form,  substantive  use. 

2.  Possessive  form,  adjective  use. 

3.  Objective  form,  objective  use. 


It  is  7. 

My  son  was  he  whom  you  saw. 
The  speaker,  he  whom  I  praised,  got  the  medal. 
I   called   the   servant  —  him  whom  I   suspected  —  to  my 
room. 

/  identifies  the  subject,  and  hence  has  the  substantive 
or  nominative  form.  He  identifies  the  subject,  and  hence 
also  has  the  subjective  or  nominative  form.  Him  identifies 
the  object,  and  hence  has  the  objective  form. 

A  pronoun  used  as  an  attribute  or  as  an  appositive  must  be  of  the 
form  which  it  would  have  were  it  in  the  place  of  its  principal. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  and  tell  the  case  form 
and  the  number  form  of  each,  giving  reasons  :  — 
i .    I  wrote  a  long  letter  to  my  friend  yesterday. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  I2Q 

2.  She  answered  it  at  once  and  relieved  my  anxiety. 

3.  I  have  immortal  longings  in  me. 

4.  Her  voice  is  ever  soft. 

5.  Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks. 

6.  I  would  give  you  some  of  my  violets,  but  they  are  withering. 

7.  The  doctor  himself  said  there  was  no  chance  for  her  recovery. 

8.  You  yourself  must  attend  to  your  own  business  if  you  wish  it  trans- 

acted to  suit  you. 

9.  We  have  tried  to  please  you. 

10.  Think  of  us  as  traveling  slowly  onward. 

1 1 .  Give  us  a  taste  of  your  quality. 

12.  I  thank  you  for  your  kindness  to  your  child  ;  he  also  appreciates  it, 

I  assure  you. 

13.  Let  the  wicked  forsake  his  way. 

14.  They  shall  beat  their  swords  into  plowshares. 

15.  Woe  unto  them  that  call  evil  good. 

1 6.  Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches. 

17.  Her  children  shall  rise  up  and  call  her  blessed. 

18.  We  hanged  our  harps  upon  the  willows. 

19.  Their  path  lay  through  the  woods. 

20.  The  dog  persisted  in  going  with  them,  though  they  repeatedly 

drove  him  back. 

21.  You  must  wake  and  call  me  early. 

22.  She  herself  told  the  story;  therefore  it  must  be  true. 

23.  The  little  bird  fell  out  of  its  nest  and  was  taken  by  the  cat. 

24.  Stand  !     The  ground's  your  own,  my  Braves. 

25.  You  who  have  tears  to  shed,  prepare  to  shed  them  now. 

26.  Put  your  trust  in  God,  my  boys,  and  keep  your  powder  dry. 

27.  First  say  to  yourself  what  you  would  be ;  and  then  do  what  you 

have  to  do. 

28.  I  believe  in  him  thoroughly,  for  though  I  have  known  him  a  long 

time,  I  have  never  found  him  in  the  wrong. 

In  the  Bible,  sometimes  in  poetry  and  in  scornful  excla- 
mations, and  among  the  Quakers  or  Friends,  tJiou,  thy  or 
thine,  and  thee,  in  the  singular,  and  ye,  your,  and  you  in 
the  plural,  are  used  in  the  second  person.  They  are 
called  the  "solemn  forms."  • 

P.   C.  GRAM.  —  9 


130  PRONOUNS 

OLD  STYLE  SECOND  PERSON. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 
Nominative.           thou  ye 

Possessive.  thy  or  thine  your 

Objective.  thee  you 

EXAMPLES.     Be  thou  faithful  unto  death. 
Be  ye  angry  and  sin  not. 
Blessed  shall  be  thy  basket  and  thy  store. 
The  Philistines  be  upon  thee,  Samson. 
If  ye  oppress  not  the  stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the 

widow,  .  .   .  then  will  I  cause  you  to  dwell  in  this 

place. 
And  I  have  loved  thee,  Ocean. 


"John,  whose  horse  is  that?"     "It  is  mine  "  (my  horse, 
John's  horse). 

Mine  represents  both  horse  and  John. 

Some  very  curious  forms  of  personal  pronouns  are  mine, 
ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs,  and  in  solemn  style  thine.  These 
pronouns  stand  for  two  antecedents,  the  name  of  the  thing 
owned,  and  the  name  of  the  person  who  owns  it.  His  is 
used  in  like  manner,  but  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  ordi- 
nary possessive. 

This  horse  is  yours. 

Yours  represents  the  entire  attribute  your  horse.  It 
is  possessive  in  form,  but  is  used  as  an  attribute  in  place 
of  horse. 

Such  pronouns  always  represent  two  ideas.  They  are 
possessive  in  form  to  agree  with  the  subordinate  idea 
represented,  but  their  use  is  that  of  the  principal.  They 


COMPOUND  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  131 

resemble  in  use  the  adjective  pronouns,  since  they  repre- 
sent the  nouns  which  as  possessives  they  would  modify. 

NOTE.  —  In  some  writers  the  forms  mine  and  thine  w\\\  be  found  used  just  as 
my  and  thy  are. 

EXAMPLE.    Lend  me  thine  ear. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  form  and  use  of  each  pronoun  in   the  following  expres- 
sions :  — 

1 .  What's  mine  is  yours,  and  what  is  yours  is  mine. 

2.  The  slate  is  hers,  but  the  pencil  is  his. 

3.  She  is  mine,  she  is  mine, 
So  I  swear  to  the  rose  ; 
For  ever  and  ever  mine. 

4.  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory. 

5.  Theirs  not  to  make  reply, 
Theirs  not  to  reason  why, 
Theirs  but  to  do  and  die. 

6.  O  love  !     What  hours  were  thine  and  mine 
In  lands  of  palm  and  southern  pine. 

7.  The  money  is  his  to  do  with  what  he  pleases. 


64.     COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  never  used  as 
possessives,  and  do  not  vary  in  form  except  to  express 
number. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

myself  ourselves 

yourself  yourselves 

himself  1 

herself  [  themselves 

itself     J 

The  solemn  form  of  the  second  person  singular  is  thyself,  plural 
yourselves. 


132  PRONOUNS 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  may  be  used  in  several 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand  would 
be  used. 

EXAMPLES.     I  myself  have  seen  it  rise. 
It  was  indeed  himself. 
I  asked  myself  the  question. 
I  hurt  myself. 

These  pronouns  have  also  two  special  uses.  They  em- 
phasize the  person  indicated,  or  they  indicate  that  the 
action  is  reflected  on  the  actor.  These  are  called  the 
emphatic  and  reflexive  uses  of  the  pronouns.  In  which  of 
the  sentences  above  is  the  pronoun  reflexive  ?  In  which 
is  it  emphatic  ? 

NOTE.  —  These  pronouns  are  parsed  without  regard  to  this  added  shade  of 
meaning. 

The  idea  which  the  compound  pronouns  cannot  express, 
for  want  of  a  possessive  form,  is  often  expressed  by  the 
adjective  own. 

EXAMPLE.     I  like  my  own  way  best. 

65.     REVIEW. 

In  general,  pronouns  have  fewer  modifiers  than  do 
nouns. 

Every  modifier  of  a  pronoun,  however  the  pronoun  is  used,  is  an 
adjective  element. 

The  derivation  of  our  language  from  many  sources 
makes  it  very  rich  in  words  whose  meaning  is  almost  the 
same,  and  also  causes  it  to  be  capable  of  expressing  the 
same  thought  or  idea  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  In  Chap- 
ter III.,  page  63,  it  was  seen  that  an  element  of  one  class 


REVIEW 


33 


is  easily  converted  into  an  element  of  either  of  the  other 
classes,  with  slight  alteration  in  meaning.  No  words  aid 
more  than  pronouns  in  doing  this. 

In  parsing  a  pronoun,  observe  the  following  outline :  — 


Adjective 
Pronouns 


Forms 


I  Uses 


f  Based  on  meaning  —  Number 


|  Based  on  use 

f  Substantive 
I  Objective 
I  Adverbial 
[ Independent 


|  Ordinary 
I  Possessive 


r  Subclasses  (SimPle 
I  Co 


Relative 
Pronouns 


Interrogative 
Pronouns 


Forms 


Uses 


Subclasses 


Forms 


Uses 


Compound 

f  Nominative 
Based  on  relation  ]  Possessive 

(  Objective 


As  connectives 
In  clauses 


Compound 
Based  on  relation 

Substantive 

Adjective 

Objective 

Adverbial 

Independent 


Substantive 
Adjective 
Objective 
Adverbial 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


134 


PRONOUNS 


Personal 
Pronouns 


Subclasses 


Forms 


Uses 


Antecedent 


Simple 
Compound 

Based  on  meaning 

Based  on  relation 

Substantive 

Adjective 

Objective 

Adverbial 

Independent 


Gender 

Number 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Modifiers  of  Pronouns  —  Adjective  elements 


Exercise. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  parse  the  pronouns  which  they 
contain :  — 

1.  My  little  doves  have  left  a  nest 

Upon  an  Indian  tree 
Whose  leaves  fantastic  take  their  rest 
Or  motion  from  the  sea. 

2.  He  saw  not  the  roses  so  sweet  and  so  red 

That  looked  through  his  window. 

3.  O  river  !     Why  lie  with  your  beautiful  face 

To  the  hill  ?     Can  you  move  him  away  from  his  place? 
You  may  moan,  you  may  clasp  him  with  soft  arms  forever  — 
He  will  still  be  a  flinty  hill  —  you  be  a  river. 

4.  And  these  two  saw  in  her  grassy  bower, 

As  they  sailed  the  way  the  river  run, 
A  little  modest  slim-necked  flower 

Nodding  and  nodding  up  to  the  sun, 
And  they  made  about  her  a  little  song 
And  sung  it  as  they  sailed  along. 

5.  He  has  given  us  a  law  for  the  lamp  of  our  path : 
If  we  stray  from  it  we  err  against  knowledge. 


CAUTIONS  135 

6.  A  voice  was  heard  to  sing  one  of  those  wild  and  monotonous 

strains  so  common  in  Scotland  and  to  which  the  natives  of  that 
country  chant  their  ballads. 

7.  That  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  said. 

8.  "What  do  you   want,  gudewife?      Who  are  you?1'  said  Bailie 

Middleburg. 

9.  Are  you  then  the  person  who  requested  to  meet  me  here  at  this 

secluded  bower? 

10.  "What  is  it  you  feel?"  he  said  impatiently. 

11.  To  whom  think  you  is  your  life  of  such  consequence  that  they 

should  seek  to  bereave  you  of  it  ? 

12.  One  whose  name  I  do  not  remember  spoke  of  Chaucer. 

13.  My  soul  with  patience  waits 

For  Thee,  the  living  Lord  ; 
My  hopes  are  on  Thy  promise  built, 
Thy  never  failing  word. 

14.  This  is  the  day  of  prayer ; 

Let  earth  to  heaven  draw  near, 
Lift  up  the  heart  to  see  Thee  there, 
Come  down  to  meet  us  here. 

15.  Both  Jefferson  arid  Hamilton  failed  to  strike  the  happy  mean  which 

Washington  attained ;  the  former  because  of  too  great  faith  in 
the  wisdom  of  the  people,  the  latter,  by  an  overcautious  nature. 

1 6.  How  tender  is  Thy  hand, 

0  Thou  most  gracious  Lord ! 

17.  O  Thou  from  whom  all  goodness  flows, 

1  lift  my  soul  to  Thee. 

(For  government  and  agreement  of  pronouns,  see  Chap- 
ter XVI.,  pages  227-229.) 

66.     CAUTIONS. 

I.    Do  not  insert  an   apostrophe  in  pronouns  denoting 
possession. 

Write  from  dictation  sentences  like  the  following :  — 

1.  The  book  is  hers.  4.    I  asked  him  to  lend  me  his  book. 

2.  This  horse  is  ours.  5.    Whose  coat  is  that  ? 

3.  Its  cover  is  torn. 


136  PRONOUNS 

II.  Do  not  use  the  objective  form  of  a  pronoun  as  sub- 
ject base. 

Write  correctly :  — 

She        .  I 

1.  TT      and        went  for  a  walk. 
Her          me 

2.  '     and  Lucy  ran  for  a  doctor. 
Him 

3.  She  writes  more  legibly  than         (than       do). 

me  V          me     / 

Him       .  she    . 
4-    He     and  her  played  together. 

we 
;.    She  walks  faster  than 

us. 

6.  There  were  at  the  rehearsal  only    '"    and  T 

3  she         I. 

We 

7.  girls  are  getting  up  a  fair. 

8.  He  is  a  singer  I  know  will  interest  you. 

Whom    .    . 

9.  shall  I  say  asked  for  you  ? 

III.  Do  not  use  the  nominative  of  a  pronoun  as  object 
of  a  verb  or  preposition. 

Write  correctly :  — 

Who 

1.  _T71         did  you  mention  ? 
Whom 

Whom    . 

2.  shall  I  ask  to  go  on  the  errand  ? 

3.  I  wish  he  would  ask  you  and 

Who 

4.  ,TT.         did  you  travel  with  ? 
Whom 

5.  The  money  is  to  be  divided  between  you  and 

,     Whom    .  she  ? 

6.  should  I  see  at  the  station  but  .       . 
Who  her  ? 


CAUTIONS  137 

7.  She  is  the  girl          ;    I  most  admire. 

who 

8.  I  hope  she  will  let  you  and        go  on  the  errand. 

9.  I  think  she  wished  ,  .      and        to  go  away. 


10.  shall  I  telegraph  to  ? 

1  1  .    Let    .        and        the  bottle  try. 
thee          me 

IV.  Remember  that  an  asserter,  since  it  asserts  identity 
between  its  subject  and  its  complement,  requires  for  its 
complement  the  same  case  form  of  the  pronoun  as  would 
be  used  for  its  subject. 

Write  correctly  :  — 

1.  Itwasme' 

2.  It  was  not  hen 

she. 

3.  It  was          who  spoke. 

him 

4.  It  was  him' 

he. 

5.  Was  it  me  or  she? 

I  her? 

6.  It  was  not  we' 

us. 


8.    It  was  not  we  who  did  it  ;  it  was  them' 
us  they. 

V.  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  idea  represented  by 
its  antecedent  in  gender,  person,  and  number.  (Nouns 
modified  by  each  and  every  are  singular  antecedents. 


138  PRONOUNS 

When  either  masculine  or  feminine  gender  may  be  under- 
stood the  pronoun  should  be  masculine.) 

Fill  the  following  blanks  correctly  :  — 

1.  Every  one  should  attend  to  -  own  business. 

2.  Everybody  will  please  bring  -  paper  to  the  desk. 

3.  Every  person  should  improve  -  mind. 

4.  A  pupil  who  studies  -  lessons  hard  is  apt  to  learn. 

5.  Every  boy  will  please  stand  by  -  own  desk. 

6.  None  of  the  girls  should  go  out  to  play  without  -  hats  on. 

7.  The  flock  of  -birds  abandoned  by  -  leader  settled  slowly  down. 

8.  If  any  man  present  objects  -  will  please  say  so  now. 

9.  Have  a  place  for  everything  and  keep  everything  in  -  place. 

VI.    Do  not  use  simple  personal  pronouns  as  appositives. 
Write  the  following  correctly  :  — 

1.  J°hn  he  went  yesterday,  but  Mar>r   t     stayed  at  home. 
John  Mary  she 

2.  Jenny  and  her  aunt  came  on  a  visit. 
Jenny  and  her  aunt  they 


The  king  he  commanded  obedience. 
The  king 


VII.    Do  not  use  myself  where  a  simple  personal  pro- 
noun is  needed. 

Fill    the   following    blanks   correctly   with    pronouns   of   the   first 
person  :  — 

i  .  John  and  --  went  fishing  last  week. 

2.  He  and  -  are  of  the  same  age. 

3.  The  secret  is  between  him  and  --  . 

4.  They  sent  an  invitation  to  Charles  and  -  . 

5.  The  storm  overtook  mother  and  —  —  before  we  reached  home. 


CA  UTIONS  1  39 

VIII.  Do  not  use  the  relative  pronoun  that  to  introduce 
a  clause  unless  you  make  it  an  element  in  the  subordinate 
clause  which  it  introduces. 

Write  correctly  :  — 

(  The  man  wrote  a  book  that  you  couldn't  learn  anything  from  it.  j 

i.   \  The  man  wrote  a  book  that  you  couldn't  learn  anything  from.  \ 

[  The  man  wrote  a  book  from  which  you  couldn't  learn  anything.  J 


The  children  have  finished  their  play  may  come  in. 

I  have  a  horse  that  no  one  can  tell  whether  he  is  going  to  run 

or  not. 
.  I  have  a  horse  about  which  no  one  can  tell  whether  he  is 

going  to  run  or  not. 

I  have  a  horse  that  no  one  can  tell  about  —  whether  he  is 
[      going  to  run  or  not. 

IX.  Do  not  use  hiss  elf,  theirself,  theirs  elves,  yourn,  hern, 
his'n  or  her'n. 

Write  correctly  the  following,  inserting  compound  personal  pronouns 
or  possessives  with  complex  meanings. 

1.  James  -  is  here. 

2.  The  book  is  -  . 

3.  Even  grammarians  -  make  mistakes. 

4.  -  is  used  up,  but  -  is  lasting  well. 

5.  They  who  -  use  profane  language  need  not  blame  others. 

X.  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective  those. 

Write  correctly  the  following  sentences,  giving  your  reason  for  the 
form  selected  :  — 

1.  Them    boys  threw  stones. 
Those 

2.  I  told    them   to  stop. 

those 

3.  They  meant  to  get  those  peaches. 

them 


140  PRONOUNS 

XI.  A  pronoun  which  represents  a  collective  noun  should 
be  neuter  singular  if  the  collection  is  considered  as  a  unit, 
but  plural  if  the  collection  is  considered  in  its  parts. 

EXAMPLES.     The  congregation  expressed  its  feeling  by  a  cheer. 
The  congregation  kept  their  seats. 

A  compound  is  represented  by  the  pronoun  which 
indicates  the  number  meant. 

EXAMPLES.     The  child  and  his  nurse  lost  their  way. 

Washington,  or  the  father  of  his  country,  loved  his 
soldiers. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  represent  properly  a  com- 
pound by  a  pronoun. 

EXAMPLES.     Did  the  boy  or  his  sisters  have  their  way? 

Did  the  girls  or  their  brother  have  his  way? 
This  is  grammatically  correct,  but  the  meaning  is  obscure. 
EXAMPLES.     You,  not  I,  will  get  your  discharge. 

Not  you,  but  I,  will  get  my  discharge. 
Both  of  these  expressions  are  ambiguous  in  meaning. 

Insert  the  proper  pronoun  in  the  following  blanks,  and  give  your 
reason ;  or  rewrite,  avoiding  the  use  of  one  pronoun  to  represent  two 
different  antecedents,  and  tell  why  :  — 

1.  The  woods  against  a  stormy  sky 
giant  branches  tossed. 

2.  The  regiment  lost colonel. 

3.  The  regiment  lost  many  of horses. 

4.  The  colonel  and  his  men  lost courage. 

5.  Either  the  colonel  or  his  men  lost courage. 

6.  Either  the  men  or  the  colonel  lost courage. 

7.  Not  the  colonel  but  his  men  lost courage. 

8.  The  colonel,  not  his  men,  lost courage. 


CHAPTER   IX.— VERBS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

A  verb  is  a  word  expressing  action. 

The  verb  forms  used  as  complements  represent  the  action  either  as 
progressing  or  as  completed,  and  are  called  participles. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  verb,  when  not  used  as  predicate  verb,  is 
called  the  infinitive. 

Tense  inflection  is  variation  in  form  to  indicate  time. 

There  are  a  few  inflections  of  the  verb  determined  by  its  subject. 

Verbs  are  classified  as  regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive. 

The  chief  asserters  are  the  forms  of  to  be. 

The  infinitive  and  participial  forms  of  an  asserter,  when  used  to 
indicate  relation,  form  copulative  infinitive  phrases  and  participial 
phrases. 

A  group  of  verb  forms  is  sometimes  employed  as  predicate  base ; 
the  word  representing  the  action  that  is  asserted  is  called  the  principal 
verb,  and  the  other  verb  forms  are  called  auxiliaries. 

Auxiliaries  are  variously  used :  some  as  asserters  and  also  to  show 
time  and  others  to  show  also  some  condition  of  the  verb's  meaning  with 
reference  to  the  subject. 

67.     THE  ASSERTER  (COPULA). 

We  have  seen  that  a  predicate  element  makes  an  asser- 
tion and  that  this  power  of  asserting  is  necessary  to  a 
predicate  (pp.  24,  25). 

Exercise. 
Underline  the  predicate  bases  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  It  is  raining.  3.    The  wind  was  blowing. 

2.  He  is  sleeping.        4.    "  Was  it  not  great  ?     Was  it  not  well  done  ?" 

141 


142  VERBS 

5.  "  Yes,  it  was  just.     His  loss  was  not  a  common  one." 

6.  The  rain  is  falling  very  fast. 

7.  That  we  were  caught  was  the  pity. 

A  large  proportion  of  predicate  bases  consist  of  groups 
of  words. 

I  am  an  author.  I  am  discovered. 

I  am  tired.  Samson  was  a  giant. 

I  am  here.  Samson's  enemies  were  powerful. 

I  am  writing.  Samson  was  overcome. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  an  asserter  (am,  was,  or 
were)  asserts  the  relation  of  some  following  word  (idea) 
to  the  subject. 

The  sentences  given  above  are  all  constructed  on  the 
same  plan,  that  is,  with  an  asserter  followed  by  that  which 
is  asserted.  This  kind  of  predicate  base  is,  in  fact,  very 
characteristic  of  the  English  language.  If  you  ask  a 
Frenchman  or  a  German  what  he  is  doing,  he  answers,  / 
speak.  But  an  Englishman  or  an  American  usually 
answers  the  same  question  by  saying,  /  am  speaking. 

A  Frenchman  or  a  German  does  not  ask,  What  are  you 
doing  ?  but  What  do  yon  ? 

The  peculiarity  of  the  idiomatic  English  predicate  is 
that  it  is  very  likely  to  consist  of  an  asserter  (copula)  and 
complement.  This  asserter  is  that  part  of  the  predicate 
which  asserts  the  relation  of  the  complement  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence. 

68.     COMPLEMENTS. 

Let  us  study  some  predicate  bases. 

I  am  reading  a  book. 
The  predicate    base   of    this    sentence    consists   of    an 


COMPLEMENTS  143 

asserter,  am,  and  a  word  representing  an  action,  reading. 
The  complement  in  this  predicate  expresses  an  action 
which  the  subject  is  performing.  This  predicate  base  is 
called  active  because  it  shows  that  the  subject  acts. 

Any  predicate  base  which  represents  the  subject  as  acting,  doing,  or 
having  is  called  active. 

This  book  is  read  by  me. 

The  predicate  base  of  this  sentence,  is  read,  consists  of 
an  asserter,  is,  and  a  word  representing  an  action,  read. 
The  complement  in  this  predicate  expresses  an  action  re- 
ceived by  the  subject. 

Any  predicate  base  which  represents  the  subject  as  receiving  an 
action  is  called  pass/ye. 

In  both  active  and  passive  predicate  bases,  the  comple- 
ment is  a  verb. 

Dickens  is  an  author. 

The  predicate  base  of  this  sentence  consists  of  an 
asserter,  is,  and  an  attribute  or  complement,  author.  The 
complement  in  this  predicate  is  a  noun  which  describes 
the  subject. 

The  book  is  instructive. 

The  predicate  base  of  this  sentence  consists  of  an 
asserter,  is,  and  an  attribute  of  the  subject,  instructive. 
The  complement  in  this  predicate  is  an  adjective  which 
describes  the  subject. 

The  predicate  bases,  is  autJwr,  is  instructive,  do  not 
express  action,  and  contain  no  verb  besides  the  copula ; 
hence  they  are  neither  active  nor  passive.  The  predicate 
bases  am  reading-,  is  read,  express  action,  and  each  con- 
tains, besides  the  asserter,  a  verb  to  represent  this  action. 


144  VERBS 

Every  active  or  passive  predicate  base  contains  a  verb  to 
represent  the  action  that  is  asserted. 

Exercise. 

In  the   following  sentences   tell  which  predicate  bases  are  active, 
which  are  passive,  and  which  are  neither :  — 

1.  An  avalanche  is  falling. 

2.  We  are  flying  from  it. 

3.  The  chalet  will  be  destroyed  by  it. 

4.  The  spectacle  is  awful. 

5.  Our  lamp  is  full. 

6.  It  was  filled  this  morning. 

7.  It 'is  burning  well. 

8.  Many  soldiers  are  gathering  at  the  park. 

9.  They  are  handsome  men. 

10.    The  mayor  was  pleased  by  their  salute. 

Change  the  following  active  predicate   bases   to   passive  predicate 
bases : — 

1 .  I  was  driving  a  horse. 

2.  The  stone  is  crushing  the  flower. 

3.  She  was  singing  a  song. 

Change  the  following  passive  predicate  bases   to  active   predicate 
bases : — 

1.  A  man  was  killed  by  the  engine. 

2.  The  gas  is  lighted  by  the  janitor. 

3.  Our  organ  was  played  by  our  teacher. 


69.     FORMS   OF  VERBAL   COMPLEMENTS. 

These  children  are  singing. 
They  were  singing  yesterday. 
They  will  be  singing  to-morrow. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  the  action  is  asserted  as 
being  performed  now ;  in  the  second,  as  being  performed 


FORMS   OF   VERBAL    COMPLEMENTS  145 

in  the  past ;  and  in  the  third,  as  to  be  performed  in  the 
future.  But  in  all  these  cases  the  action  is  being  performed 
(or  to  be  performed}  at  the  time  asserted. 

Exercise. 

When  is  the  action  being  performed  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences ? 

1 .  The  wind  was  blowing. 

2.  Our  children  were  running. 

3.  Birds  are  caroling. 

4.  The  sun  is  shining. 

5.  The  bell  will  soon  be  ringing. 

6.  The  pupils  will  be  playing  at  recess. 

7.  I  am  expecting  to  see  them. 


They  have  sung. 

They  had  sung  yesterday. 

They  will  have  sung  to-morrow. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences  the  perfected  or  com- 
pleted action  (sung)  is  asserted  in  present  time  (have) ;  in 
the  second,  it  is  asserted  in  the  past  (had);  and  in  the 
third,  in  the  future  (will  have).  But  in  all  these  cases  the 
completed  action  is  asserted. 

Exercise. 
When  are  the  actions  asserted  in  the  following  sentences? 

1.  I  shall  have  finished  my  task  soon. 

2.  I  have  finished  mine  already. 

3.  Julia  had  finished  hers  before  dinner. 

4.  The  lady  has  sung  well ;  let  us  applaud  her. 

5.  When  he  shall  have  recited,  applaud  him. 

6.  We  had  rested  before  the  opera. 

7.  You  will  have  heard  of  me  at  this  time  next  year. 

8.  I  have  received  an  answer  to  my  note, 
p.  c.  GRAM.  — 10 


146  VERBS 

I  am  reading  the  book. 
I  have  read  the  book. 
The  book  is  read  by  me. 

The  verbs  used  as  complements  in  these  sentences  ex- 
press the  same  action  and  are  employed  in  corresponding 
positions,  but  are  of  two  forms.  One  form  is  used  to  express 
an  action  which  is  in  progress,  and  the  other  form  is  used 
to  express  an  action  completed. 


You  are  writing  a  letter. 
You  have  written  a  letter. 
The  letter  is  written  by  you. 
The  wind  is  fanning  the  leaves. 
The  wind  has  fanned  the  leaves. 
The  leaves  are  fanned  by  the  wind. 

In  the  above  sentences  which  are  the  progressive  forms  ? 
Which  are  the  completed  forms  ?  Does  the  passive  predi- 
cate use  the  progressive  or  the  completed  form  of  the  verb  ? 

The  words  am,  is,  are,  was,  and  were  assert  the  com- 
pleted form  as  being  received  by  the  subject ;  the  words 
have,  has,  and  had  assert  the  completed  form  as  being  done 
by  the  subject. 

70.     PREDICATE   VERB. 

The  assertion,  Dickens  was  an  author,  cannot  be  made 
without  the  asserter  ivas.  The  assertion,  His  books  are 
instructive,  cannot  be  made  without  the  employment  of  the 
asserter  are.  But  the  assertion,  /  am  reading  it,  can  be 
made  without  the  asserter  am,  by  use  of  the  simple  form 
of  the  verb  :  /  read  it. 


PREDICATE   VERB  147 

I  am  going  \s  similar  in  meaning  to  I  go. 

I  am  writing  is  similar  in  meaning  to  /  write. 

They  are  skating  is  similar  in  meaning  to  They  skate. 

My  head  is  aching  is  similar  in  meaning  to  My  head  aches. 

Each  of  the  verbs,  go,  write,  etc.,  performs  two  offices : 
it  represents  action,  and  it  asserts  the  relation  of  the  action 
to  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  What  is  this  form  of  the 
verb  called  ? 

The  asserter  asserts  the  relation  which  a  complement  bears  to  the 
subject ;  the  predicate  verb  asserts  the  relation  which  its  own  meaning 
bears  to  the  subject. 

Exercise. 

Analyze  the  predicates  in  the  following  sentences,  and  change  the 
asserters  and  complement  bases  to  predicate  verbs :  — 

1.  The  basket  fell  into  the  well. 

2.  The  water  is  gurgling  in  the  pipe. 

3.  From  the  mountains  a  soft  wind  is  blowing. 

4.  An  iceberg  was  moving  toward  our  doomed  vessel. 

5.  The  vessel  moves  slowly  into  the  harbor. 

6.  My  pen  writes  the  words  reluctantly. 

The  words  asserting  possession  are  verbs  (p.  36).  In 
I  have  done  my  best,  the  word  have  is  an  asserter ;  in  / 
have  a  good  voice,  have  is  a  predicate  verb. 

Exercise. 
In  the  following  sentences,  tell  how  have,  has,  and  had  are  used :  — 

1.  I  have  engaged  a  maid  who  has  many  good  qualities. 

2.  We  had  no  time,  but  we  had  money. 

3.  You  should  have  come  early,  for  we  had  refreshments. 

4.  You  have  no  room  ? 

5.  I  had  engaged  one. 

6.  Herbert  has  laughed  several  times  to-night. 


148  VERBS 

A  predicate  base  may  be  considered  as  always  consisting 
of  two  parts ;  an  idea  part  related  to,  or  modifying,  the 
subject,  and  a  relation  part  asserting  the  relation  of  the 
idea  part  to  the  subject.  The  idea  part  of  the  predicate 
base  is  attributive,  while  the  relation  part  is  assertive. 

The  rain  is  falling. 
John  is  resting. 

The  assertive  part  of  each  of  these  active  predicate 
bases  is  the  asserter;  the  attribute  part  is  a  verb. 

The  roof  was  mended. 

The  assertive  part  of  this  passive  predicate  base  is  the 
asserter;  the  attribute  part  is  a  verb. 

I  am  a  teacher. 
It  is  I. 

The  day  is  cold. 
The  boy  is  weary. 

The  assertive  part  of  each  of  these  predicate  bases, 
which  are  neither  active  nor  passive,  is  the  asserter ;  the 
attribute  part  is  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective. 

The  rain  falls. 

The  predicate  verb  is  a  verb  that  contains  within  itself 
both  the  attribute  idea  and  the  assertive  power.  That  is, 
the  one  verb  is  both  attribute  and  asserter  —  complement 
and  copula.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  a  verb  may  be  attribute 
only,  or  it  may,  by  the  way  it  is  used,  combine  the 
attribute  and  assertive  functions. 


SIMPLEST  FORM  149 

Exercise. 

Analyze  the  predicates  in  the  following  sentences.  Change  the 
predicate  verbs  to  asserters  and  complements. 

1.  Those  men  are  carpenters. 

2.  They  have  builded  well. 

3.  The  children  sing  well  to-day. 

4.  They  sang  well  when  I  heard  them, 

5.  They  are  well  drilled. 

6.  The  songs,  too,  are  good. 

7.  I  enjoy  this  music. 

71.     SIMPLEST   FORM. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  verb  represents  the  verb's 
meaning  without  the  addition  of  any  inflection. 
EXAMPLES.     Love,  strike,  go,  rest,  possess,  live 

This  is  the  ordinary  form  of  the  verb. 
When  this  form  of  the  verb  is  not  related  or  limited  to 
any  particular  subject  or  time,  it  is  called  the  infinitive. 
EXAMPLES.     Die,  love,  sing,  go. 

This  form  of  the  verb  is  frequently  the  idea  part  of  a 
phrase  whose  relation  word  is  to  ;  the  phrase  thus  formed 
is  called  the  infinitive  phrase,  or  often  merely  the  infinitive. 

EXAMPLES.     To  die,  to  love,  to  sing,  to  go. 

The  infinitive  phrase  is  used  much  as  other  phrases  are 
used,  except  that  it  never  performs  the  assertive  office. 
EXAMPLES.     To  see  her  is  to  love  her. 

To  be  a  well-favored  man  is  the  gift  of  fortune. 

My  desire  is  to  study  art. 

I  like  to  study. 

I  went  to  town  to  buy  a  book. 

His  desire  to  study  was  very  great. 

Tell  what  kind  of  element  each  of  these  phrases  is. 


1 5O  VERBS 

The  infinitive  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb,  usually  united  with 
the  preposition  to  to  represent  an  action  unrelated  to  any  subject 
or  time. 

Exercise. 
Select  the  infinitives  from  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  1  hope  to  go  to  Europe. 

2.  John  failed  to  find  the  ball. 

3.  They  have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found, 

Freedom  to  worship  God. 

4.  To  speak  truly,  I  desire  it  not. 

5.  Something  the  heart  must  have  to  cherish. 

6.  The  way  to  resumption  is  to  resume. 

This  infinitive  form  is  used  in  naming  the  verb. 

EXAMPLE.  The  verb  to  intend  is  used  oftener  in  his  works  than  the 
verb  to  do. 

The  simplest  form  is  often  used  as  a  predicate  verb,  as 
in  /  go,  they  run,  we  love,  etc.  ;  but  a  verb  thus  related  to 
a  subject  is  not  called  an  infinitive. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  decide  in  each  case 
whether  the  form  should  be  called  predicate  verb  or  infinitive :  — 

1 .  I  go  to-morrow. 

2.  I  wish  to  go  to-day. 

3.  She  bade  me  go. 

4.  We  study  French. 

5.  To  learn  a  foreign  language  requires  study. 

6.  You  saw  me  study. 

7.  The  children  play  to  amuse  themselves. 

8.  The  boys  try  to  do  their  duty. 

9.  The  rivers  flow  to  the  sea. 

10.  Watch  the  river  flow. 

11.  Watch  the  river's  flow. 

12.  The  man  hopes  to  go  abroad. 

13.  Dare  you  go? 


PARTICIPLES  151 

72.     PARTICIPLES. 

The  two  forms  of  the  verb  which  are  used  as  attributes 
in  active  and  passive  -  predicate  bases  have  already  been 
noticed. 


A  gently  murmuring  stream  ran  by  the  grove. 
The  vase,  filled  with  flowers,  stood  on  the  table. 

How  are  these  verb  forms  used  ? 

The  daring  are  ever  successful. 

The  condemned  hung  his  head  in  shame. 

How  are  these  verb  forms  used? 

She  came  up  stairs  running. 
He  came  limping. 

How  are  these  verb  forms  used  ? 

Such  forms  are  frequently  employed  as  adjectives,  as 
nouns,  or  as  adverbial  elements.  The  verb  forms  thus 
partaking  of  or  participating  in  the  characteristics  of  two 
parts  of  speech,  are  called  participles. 

The  progressive  or  incomplete  form  of  the  participle  is 
called  the  progressive  or  present  participle.  This  partici- 
ple ends  in  ing. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  reading.  He  was  studying. 

We  were  moving.          They  were  traveling. 
You  are  speaking  too  rapidly. 

The  completed  form  of  the  participle  is  called  the 
complete  or  perfect  participle.  This  participle  generally 
ends  in  ed,  t,  or  n. 

EXAMPLES.     Burnt,  written,  done,  gone,  lain,  been,  laughed. 


152  VERBS 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  partaking  of  the  characteristics  ol 
the  verb  and  of  some  other  part  of  speech. 

The  progressive  or  present  participle  represents  the  action  as 
progressing. 

The  complete  or  perfect  participle  represents  the  action  as  completed. 


Exercise. 

Point  out  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  which 
are  progressive  and  which  are  perfect :  — 

1 .  The  dogs  are  running. 

2.  The  dog  barking  so  is  hurt. 

3.  The  letter  was  published  in  the  papers. 

4.  John  has  written  a  letter. 

5.  A  correctly  written  note  does  you  credit. 

6.  The  note  was  written  by  the  boy. 

7.  The  master  was  obeyed  by  his  pupil. 

8.  The  melancholy  days  are  come. 

9.  Thinking  deeply  tired  me. 

10.  The  boys  have  studied  their  lessons. 

11.  The  chimney  was  blown  down. 

12.  I  dislike  going  out. 

13.  The  pitcher  was  broken. 

14.  The  children  have  broken  the  pitcher. 

15.  The  signature  was  forged. 

1 6.  Thou  art  gone  to  the  grave. 


73.   FORMS   BASED  ON  TIME  EXPRESSED. 

I  love  you.    (now) 

I  bless  you  for  this  kind  act. 

I  write  letters  in  the  morning,    (customarily) 

We  take  much  exercise,    (usually) 

The  simple  form  is  used  as  predicate  verb  to  assert 
something  in  the  present  time,  or  as  a  present  custom.  It 
is  called  the  present  tense. 


TENSE  FORMS  1 53 

I  loved you.     (once) 

I  broke  the  rule,  I  fear. 

I  walked  every  morning,     (last  summer) 

I  went  home,     (last  night) 

The  past  form  is  used  as  predicate  verb  to  assert  some- 
thing in  past  time,  or  as  a  past  custom.  It  is  called  the 

past  tense. 

Come  unto  me. 

Learn  of  the  ant. 

The  imperative  sentence  always  contains  the  present 
tense,  but  the  command  or  request  may  be  meant  either 
for  present  or  for  future  time.  This  use  of  the  present 
tense  in  the  imperative  sentence  is  frequently  called  the 
imperative  mood  of  the  verb,  the  usual  use  of  the  verb 
forms  being  the  indicative  mood. 

NOTE.  —  For  subjunctive  mood,  see  p.  174. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences ;  tell  what  tense  is 
used  and  what  time  is  expressed :  — 

1 .  I  study  early  in  the  morning. 

2.  We  heard  the  band  play  "  Yankee  Doodle." 

3.  I  recited  history  at  ten  o'clock  on  Monday. 

4.  Bring  me  a  glass  of  water,  please. 

5.  I  walked  to  school. 

6.  I  practice  two  hours  daily. 

7.  Hope  on,  hope  ever. 

8.  Go  to  the  ant.  thou  sluggard. 

9.  I  wish  to  improve. 

10.    Robert  belongs  to  a  military  company. 

The  inflection  of  a  verb  to  indicate  time  is  tense  inflection. 

The  use  of  one  form  of  the  verb  rather  than  another  to  indicate  the 
condition  of  the  verb's  meaning  with  reference  to  the  subject  is  called 
mood. 


1 54  VERBS 

74.     FORMS   DETERMINED   BY  THE   SUBJECT. 

I  go.  I  write. 

We  go.  We  write. 

You  go.  You  write. 

They  go.  They  write. 

He  goes.  She  writes. 

The  only  change  of  form  which  most  verbs  usually  make 
because  of  the  subject,  occurs  in  the  present  predicate 
verb.  The  ordinary  form  is  used  for  the  first  and  second 
person  in  the  singular,  and  for  all  three  persons  in  the 
plural.  But  for  the  third  person  singular,  the  form  used 
generally  ends  in  s  or  es. 

The  solemn  style  of  pronoun,  t/iou,  as  a  subject,  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  form  of  the  verb  in  the  present  tense  ending 
in  st  or  est.  For  the  third  person  singular,  in  the  solemn 
style,  the  present  verb  form  generally  ends  in  th  or  eth. 

EXAMPLES.         I  go.  I  write. 

Thou  goest.  Thou  writest. 

He  goeth.  She  writeth. 

In  the  solemn  style  there  is  often  an  inflection  also  in 
the  past  for  the  second  person  singular. 
EXAMPLE.     Thou  saidst. 

Exercise. 

Account  for  the  form  of  each  verb  in  these  sentences :  — 

1 .  He  knows  that  I  know  his  fault. 

2.  It  rains,  and  my  mother  fears  to  go  out. 

3.  Thou  knowest  that  I  love  thee. 

4.  He  that  goeth  forth  in  sorrow  oft  returneth  rejoicing. 

5.  Thou  didst  not  what  was  right. 

Give  all  the  present  predicate  verb  forms  of  to  cry,  to  sigh,  to  flow, 
to  do. 


REVIEW   OF  FORMS 


155 


75.     REVIEW. 


Present  \ 

Predicate 

verb  forms 

Verb 

Past 

forms 

Participial   f  Progress 

forms       I  Complete 

f  Ordinary  (also  infinitive  and 
imperative) 

Third  person  singular 
I  Solemn  forms 

Ordinary 

Solemn 


EXAMPLE. 


(Inf.) 
To  love 


r  Ordinary  —  love 

C  Present  -j  Third  person  singular — loves 

Predicate  verb  jloved     |  Solr  lovest 
Movedst  [loveth 

f  Progressive  —  loving 
i  Complete  —  loved 


Participles 


A  tabulated  view  of  the  inflections  of  a  verb  —  that  is,  of  its  changes  of 
form  because  of  tense,  or  subject,  or  mood  —  is  its  inflectional  conjugation. 


EXAMPLE. 


First  person. 
Second  person . 
Third  person. 


First  person. 
Second  person. 
Third  person. 


INFINITIVE  —  to  love 

PRESENT. 
SINGULAR. 
I  love 

You  love  (thou  lovest) 
He,  she,  it  loves  (loveth) 


PLURAL. 
We  love 
You  (ye)  love 
They  love 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE 
loving 


PAST. 

PLURAL. 
We  loved 
You  (ye)  loved 
They  loved 

COMPLETE  PARTICIPLE 

loved 
IMPERATIVE  —  love 


SINGULAR. 

I  loved 

You  loved  (thou  lovedst) 

He,  she,  it  loved 


156  VERBS 

Exercise  on  Form. 

Name  the  form  of  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences  and  explain 
the  reason  for  its  use. 

1 .  A   wandering   minstrel,   worn   by  long   travel,   sang  beneath   our 

window. 

2.  We  thanked  him,  and,  flinging  flowers  to  him,  retired  to  rest. 

3.  The  sun  rises  arrayed  in  splendor. 

4.  To  tell  her  virtues  taxes  all  my  powers. 

5.  They  tell  themselves  to  all  who  know  her. 

76.     MEANING  OF  VERB   FORMS. 

The  infinitive  phrase  and  the  progressive  participial 
form  are  the  purest  in  meaning,  being  used  often  merely 
to  name  the  meaning  of  the  verb. 

EXAMPLES.     To  read  is  pleasant. 

Reading  is  a  pleasant  occupation. 

The  perfect  participial  form  expresses  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  and  the  idea  of  completion. 
EXAMPLES.     The  day  is  gone. 

A  crumpled  paper.  • 

The  present  tense  of  the  verb,  or  the  present  predicate 
verb,  combines  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and  the  assertive 
function  with  the  idea  of  present  time. 

EXAMPLES.     I  go  often.  He  goes  often. 

We  live  here.  He  lives  here. 

The  past  tense,  or  the  past  predicate  verb,  combines  the 
meaning  of  the  verb  and  the  assertive  function  with  the 
idea  of  past  time. 

EXAMPLES.    I  ran.  He  ran. 

We  lived  here.  He  lived  here. 

NOTE.  —  This  means,  He  did  live  —  in  the  past. 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR    VERBS  157 

Exercise. 

• 

Analyze  the  meanings  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  We  hoped  tp  succeed. 

2.  Rowing  is  good  exercise. 

3.  The  ship  was  loaded  with  curios. 

4.  The  torn  page  was  spoiled  entirely  by  the  rain. 

5.  I  enjoy  the  summer. 

6.  To  think  requires  brains. 

7.  A  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire. 

8.  The  ship  sank  in  mid-ocean. 

9.  My  exercise  is  finished. 

10.  A  loaded  wagon  passed  the  door. 

11.  The  man  failed  in  his  attempt  to  fly. 

77.     CLASSES  BASED  ON  FORM. 

I  laugh  every  time  I  speak  of  it. 

I  laughed  when  I  spoke  of  it. 

I  have  laughed  whenever  I  have  spoken  of  it. 

The  past  predicate  verb  form  —  past  tense  —  and  per- 
fect participle  of  laugh  are  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the 
present  form.  The  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  of 
speak  are  formed  by  altering  the  spelling  of  the  word. 

According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle  of  a  verb  are  formed,  it  is  called  a  regu- 
lar verb,  or  an  irregular  verb. 

A  verb  whose  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  are  formed  by  adding 
d  or  ed  to  the  present,  is  called  a  regular  verb. 

EXAMPLE.    PRESENT.  PAST.  PERF.  PART. 

live  lived  lived 

A  verb  whose  past  tense  or  perfect  participle  is  formed  in  any  other 
way  than  by  adding  d  or  ed  —  as  by  changes  within  the  verb  —  is  called 
an  irregular  verb. 


158  VERBS 

EXAMPLES.        PRESENT.  PAST  PERF.  PART. 

run  ran     *  run 

sow  sowed  sown 

cost  cost  cost 

deal  dealt  dealt 

NOTE.  —  The  cd  or  d  used  in  the  past  tense  is  the  remains  of  some  verb,  with  a 
meaning  like  that  of  did,  which  was  once  used  to  show  the  completion  of  the  act: 
/  lean  did.  The  tendency  is  to  make  all  verbs  regular.  Many  are  both  regular 
and  irregular;  or  regular  in  one  part  and  irregular  in  another. 

EXAMPLES.         PRESENT."  PAST.  PERF.  PART. 

hang  hung  or  hanged  hung  or  hanged 

sow  sowed  sowed  or  sown 


Exercise. 

Tell  which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  regular,  and 
which  are  irregular  :  — 

1 .  The  tree  which  grew  by  the  wall  waxed  tall  and  stately. 

2.  The  woodman  went  out  and  cut  it  down. 

3.  Put  the  hewn  logs  in  their  places  and  the  sawed  wood  below. 

4.  The  merry  children,  pleased  by  the  music,  sang  and  danced. 


78.     CLASSES   BASED   ON   NATURE. 

I  ran. 

I  followed  you. 

Some  verbs  are  capable  of  modification  by  an  objective 
element,  whereas  others  are  not. 

I  ran. 

I  was  followed  by  you. 

Those  verbs  which  can  be  modified  by  objects  can  also 
be  used  to  make  passive  predicate  bases. 

This  gives  rise  to  two  classes  of  verbs  —  transitive  and 
intransitive. 


TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE   VERBS  159 

A  transitive  verb  is  limited  by  an  object,  or  used  as  a  verbal  com- 
plement in  forming  a  passive  predicate  base. 

EXAMPLE.     I  love  my  mother. 

My  mother  is  loved  by  me. 

An  intransitive  verb  is  not  limited  by  an  object  and  cannot  be  used 
to  form  a  passive  predicate  base. 

EXAMPLE.     I  go  to  school. 

Many  verbs    are   sometimes   transitive    and    sometimes 
intransitive. 

EXAMPLE.     I  write  well,     (write  is  intransitive) 
I  write  letters,     (write  is  transitive) 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  and  tell  whether  they 
are  regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive  :  — 

1.  Mary  found  a  dime. 

2.  The  young  chickens  thrive. 

3.  The  little  children  laughed  merrily. 

4.  The  ship  foundered  off  the  Nova  Scotia  coast. 

5.  Mary,  John,  and  Henry  wrote  each  a  composition. 

6.  My  question  was  answered  by  a  telegram. 

7.  The  child  of  whom  I  spoke  resembles  his  mother. 

8.  I  rely  on  you  to  help  me. 

9.  John  A.  Logan  joined  the  army  as  a  volunteer. 

10.  The  pupils  wrote  well  and  rapidly. 

11.  The  travelers  arrived  at  noon. 

12.  Our  sleeping  rooms  are  ventilated. 

13.  The  President  left  town  yesterday. 

14.  I  see  them  on  the  winding  way. 

15.  I  heard  Patti  sing  "Home,  Sweet  Home." 

16.  Patti  sings  divinely. 

17.  We  heard  Whittier's  "  Snow-bound." 

1 8.  The  class  read  well. 

19.  I  see  before  me  a  picture  representing  a  winter  scene. 

20.  The  Santa  Claus  Club  gave  money  to  the  poor. 


l6o  VERBS 


79.     SUMMARY  OF  CLASSES. 


[Based  on  form     {  Re£ular 
]  Irregular 

(  Transitive 


Classes  of  verbs 

Based  on  nature 


1 

Exercise. 

Write  five  sentences  each  containing  a  regular  transitive  verb. 
Write  five  sentences  each  containing  an  irregular  transitive  verb. 
Write  five  sentences  each  containing  a  regular  intransitive  verb. 
Write  five  sentences  each  containing  an  irregular  intransitive  verb. 

80.     USES  OF  VERBS. 

I.  Predicative  use. 

The  proper  uses  of  the  verb,  so  far  considered,  are  as 
predicate  verb,  or  as  verbal  attribute,  or  as  asserter. 

EXAMPLES.    I  go. 

I  am  running. 
He  seems  lazy. 

There  are,  however,  various  other  uses  to  which  a  verb 
may  be  put  while  still  retaining  its  verbal  nature. 

II.  Adjective  use. 

a.  The  two  participles  of  the  verb  are  used  as  adjective 
word  elements. 

EXAMPLES.     The  panting  horse  soon  dropped. 
A  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire. 

b.  The   present    participle  is  used   as  the  base  of   an 
attributive  word  element. 

EXAMPLES.     True  industry  is  doing  the  useful  and  leaving  the  use- 
less undone. 


USES   OF   VERBS  l6l 

c.  Either  participle  is  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposi- 
tion —  the  idea  part  of  a  phrase. 

EXAMPLES.     The  credit  of  discovering  it  is  mine. 

The  honor  of  the  undersigned  is  pledged. 

d.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  an  adjective  phrase. 
EXAMPLE.     A  noble  race  to  run  is  now  before  us. 

e.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  an  attributive  phrase, 
EXAMPLE.     My  hope  is  to  go. 

III.  Substantive  use. 

a.  The  present  participle  is  used  as  a  substantive  word 
element. 

EXAMPLES.     Laughing  is  contagious. 
Running  is  healthful. 

The  perfect  participle,  having  passed  through  an  adjec- 
tive use,  is  also  used  substantively. 

EXAMPLE.     The  undersigned  begs  the  favor  of  an  interview. 

b.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  a  substantive  phrase. 
EXAMPLE.     To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

IV.  Objective  use. 

a.  The  present  participle  is  used  as  an  objective  word 
modifier. 

EXAMPLE.     I  dislike  rowing.  * 

The   complete  participle  has  also  passed  through   the 
adjective  to  the  objective  use. 

EXAMPLE.     She  pitied  the  condemned. 

b.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  an  objective  phrase. 
EXAMPLE.     I  like  to  sing. 

P.  C.  GRAM.  —  II 


1 62  VERBS 

V.    Adverbial  use. 

a.  The  present  participle  is  used  as  an  adverbial  word 
modifier. 

EXAMPLES.     He  came  limping. 

Warren  fell  fighting. 

b.  Either  participle  is  used  as  object  of  a  preposition. 
EXAMPLES.     He  praises  me  for  discovering  it. 

Your  aid  is  asked  by  the  undersigned. 

c.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  an  adverbial  phrase. 

EXAMPLES.     I  went  to  listen. 
He  came  to  pray. 

NOTE.  —  The  infinitive  phrase  was  formerly  used  after  the  preposition  for. 
EXAMPLE.    What  came  ye  out  for  to  see  ? 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following,  and  tell  their  uses :  — 

1.  A  charge  to  keep  I  have, 

A  God  to  glorify, 
A  never-dying  soul  to  save 
And  fit  it  for  the  sky. 

2.  The  wind  is  blowing  a  gale. 

3.  The  oppressed  of  all  nations  were  welcomed  here. 

4.  The  glowing  coals  lay  upon  the  hearth. 

5.  Rest  is  not  quitting  the  busy  career; 
Rest  is  the  fitting  of  self  to  its  sphere  : 

Tis  the  brook's  motion,  clear  without  strife, 
Fleeing  to  ocean  after  its  life. 

6.  I  enjoy  walking  and  running. 

7.  The  mourned,  the  loved,  the  lost  —  too  many,  yet  how  few!  * 

8.  Columbus  tried  to  find  a  new  route  to  India. 

9.  He  was  the  loved  of  all. 

10.    The  child  stood  trembling  in  the  presence  of  the  man. 
n.    We  hope  to  have  the  pleasure  of  your  society. 


THE    CHIEF  ASSERTER  163 

12.  The  man,  forced  by  circumstances,  gave  up  his  hope  of  becoming 

an  artist. 

13.  Alice  spoke  to  me,  stuttering  dreadfully. 
14     I  tried  to  get  a  patent  for  my  invention. 

15.  We  wished  to  read  ""Paradise  Lost.'' 

1 6.  The  clergyman  prayed  for  the  widowed  and  the  fatherless. 

17.  The  boys  enjoyed  swimming. 

1 8.  My  desire  is  to  be  present  on  the  occasion. 

19.  He  had  a  chance  to  go,  but  did  not  take  advantage  of  it. 

20.  A  furnished  house  was  advertised  for  rent. 

21.  A  sparkling  brook  ran  through  the  meadow. 

22.  To  remain  at  home  was  not  my  purpose. 

23.  The  bereaved  spoke  tenderly  of  their  dead. 

24.  Striving  for  knowledge  is  better  than  working  for  fame. 

81.     THE   CHIEF  ASSERTER. 

Having  studied  the  forms,  classes,  and  uses  of  verbs,  we 
can  better  understand  the  chief  asserter.  This  word  has 
been  called  the  copula  because  it  couples  the  chief  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence.  It  has  been  called  the  asserter 
because  it  asserts  the  relation  of  the  chief  elements  of  a 
sentence.  It  was  formerly  a  word  asserting  existence,  or 
being,  and  even  now  is  sometimes  used  with  its  original 
meaning.  When  so  used,  it  is  a  true  predicate  verb  in- 
dicating existence,  and  asserting  itself  of  the  subject. 

EXAMPLE.     The  thing  is  [exists],  even  though  you  do  not  see  it. 

The  asserter,  then,  was  formerly  an  idea  word  in  the 
sentence,  but  has  lost  much  of  its  original  meaning  and 
has  come  to  be  used  as  a  relation  word,  usually  asserting 
the  relation  of  its  complement  to  the  subject. 

The  forms  of  to  be,  like  the  forms  of  the  pronoun  /, 
being  derived  from  various  sources,  do  not  resemble  one 
another  except  in  a  similar  use. 

The  conjugation  of  to  be,  therefore,  is  not  a  tabulated 


1 64  VERBS 

view  of  its  changes  of  form,  but  is  rather  a  view  of  several 
different  words  which  are  used  as  asserters. 

INFINITIVE  — to  be 

PRESENT.  PAST. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

I  am  We  are  I  was  We  were 

You  are  (thou  art)  You  (ye)  are    You  were  (thou  wast)  You  (ye)  were 
He,  she,  it  is  They  are  He,  she,  it  was  They  were 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE.  COMPLETE  PARTICIPLE. 

being  been 

IMPERATIVE —  be 

Am  makes  an  assertion ;  it  also  indicates  present  time ; 
and  it  shows  that  its  subject  is  in  the  first  person. 
Is  also  represents  a  similarly  complex  idea. 
What  do  are,  was,  and  were  indicate  ? 
There  are  other  asserters  besides  be,  but  these  retain, 
when  so  used,  much  of  their  original  verbal  meaning. 
EXAMPLES.     She  seems  happy. 

She  appears  contented. 
You  look  cheerful. 

Such  verbs  really  serve  as  copulas,  and  are  hence  often 
called  copulative  verbs. 

A  copula  is  a  verb  whose  chief  office  is  to  assert  the  relation  of  a 
complement  to  the  subject. 

82.     INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPLES  OF  THE  ASSERTER. 

To  be  is  better  than  annihilation. 
What  is  to  be,  will  be. 

That  ought  not  to  be.     {Ought  is  an  asserter.) 
I  did  not  ask  to  be. 

The  poor  little  plant  did  not  struggle  to  bloom,  but  only 
to  be. 

How  is  the  infinitive  used  in  each  of  these  sentences  ? 


INFINITIVE  AND  PARTICIPIAL  PHRASES  165 

His  desire  to  be  good  is  laudable. 
To  be  good  requires  effort. 
He  was  to  be  there. 
I  desire  to  be  good. 
I  work  to  be  successful. 

How  is  each  of  these  infinitive  phrases  used  ?  Point  out 
the  complement  which  follows  each  infinitive.  To  be 
does  not  show  the  relation  of  its  complement  to  a  prin- 
cipal, but  merely  introduces  the  complement.  This  use  of 
the  infinitive  of  an  asserter  is  idiomatic.  The  entire  ex- 
pression is  a  copulative  infinitive  phrase. 

Being  ill  is  unpleasant. 

I  liked  being  ill,  for  they  petted  me. 

How  is  each  of  these  participial  expressions  used  ?  Point 
out  the  complement  which  follows  each  participle.  Being 
does  not  show  the  relation  of  its  complement  to  a  prin- 
cipal, but  merely  introduces  the  complement.  This  also  is 
an  idiomatic  use  of  the  asserter,  and  the  entire  expression, 
participle  and  complement,  is  called  a  participial  phrase. 

A  copulative  infinitive  phrase  consists  of  the  infinitive  of  an  asserter 
followed  by  a  complement. 

A  participial  phrase  consists  of  the  present  participle  of  an  asserter 
followed  by  a  complement. 

Been,  the  complete  participle  of  to  be,  is  never  used 
except  after  some  form  of  have. 

EXAMPLES.     Such  things  have  been. 
I  have  been  here  before. 
Had  the  boy  been  ill  many  days  ? 
They  having  been  good  friends,  parted  in  sorrow. 
It  may  not  be  again,  but  no  one  can  rob  me  of  its  hav- 
ing been. 
To  have  been  absent  then  was  annoying. 


1 66  VERBS 

Exercise. 

Analyze  and  give  the  use  of  each  infinitive  or  participial  phrase  in 
the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  church  being  empty  seemed  to  be  cheerless. 

2.  To  be  sure  of  my  ground  I  questioned  him. 

3.  Being  opposed  to  the  scheme,  I  purpose  to  be  severe. 

4.  Being  agreeable  is  not  always  easy. 

5.  To  seem  honest  is  not  enough. 

6.  Feeling  tired,  I  lay  down. 

7.  The  maid,  looking  ill  enough,  asked  leave  to  retire. 

8.  My  purpose  was  to  appear  trustworthy. 

Write  three  sentences,  each  with  a  copulative  infinitive  phrase  used 
substantively ;  adjectively  ;  as  objective  element. 

Write  three  sentences,  each  with  a  participial  phrase  used  as  an  attri- 
bute ;  as  an  adverbial  element. 


83.     INFLECTIONAL   CONJUGATION  AND  PARALLEL  FORMS. 

The  forms  of  to  be  being  understood,  it  is  possible  to 
give  the  inflectional  conjugation  of  a  verb  with  the  parallel 
forms  of  the  same  verb  used  as  a  verbal  complement. 

TO   LOVE. 

AS   PREDICATE   VERB,  — ACTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

I  love  We  love 

You  love  (thou  lovest)  You  (ye)  love 

He,  she,  it  loves  (loveth)  They  love 

PAST. 

I  loved  We  loved 

You  loved  (thou  lovedst)  You  (ye)  loved 

He,  she,  it  loved  They  loved 


MEANING    OF  AUXILIARIES  1 67 

AS   VERBAL   COMPLEMENT. 

PRESENT. 
Active  —  Progressive. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

I  am  loving  We  are  loving 

You  are  (thou  art)  loving  You  (ye)  are  loving 

He,  she,  it  is  loving  They  are  loving 

Passive. 
I  am  loved  We  are  loved 

You  are  (thou  art)  loved  You  (ye)  are  loved 

He,  she,  it  is  loved  They  are  loved 

PAST. 

Active  —  Progressive. 

I  was  loving  We  were  loving 

You  were  (thou  wast)  loving  You  (ye)  were  loving 

He,  she,  it  was  loving  They  were  loving 

Passive. 

I  was  loved  We  were  loved 

You  were  (thou  wast)  loved  You  (ye)  were  loved 

He,  she.  it  was  loved  They  were  loved 

These  active  and  passive  forms  are  sometimes  called  the 
active  and  passive  voices  of  the  verb. 

Voice  is  that  use  of  the  verb  forms  which  causes  the  sentence  to  indi- 
cate whether  the  subject  performs  or  receives  the  action  expressed  by 
the  predicate. 


84.     MEANING  OF   AUXILIARIES. 

Some  changes  in  the  meaning  or  relations  of  a  verb  are 
indicated  by  changing  the  form  of  the  verb. 


I 68  VERBS 

I  hope.  I  work. 

He  hopes.  I  worked. 

I  hoped.  I  shall  work. 

In  which  of  these  cases  is  the  time  of  the  action  shown 
by  the  tense  form  of  the  verb  ?  In  which  is  it  shown  by 
the  aid  of  another  word  ? 

Some  changes  in  the  meaning  of  a  verb  are  indicated, 
not  by  altering  the  form  of  the  verb,  but  by  the  aid  of 
another,  helping  word,  sometimes  called  an  auxiliary.  . 

He  has  loved.         He  will  love.         He  may  love. 

Has  asserts  loved  of  he,  and  also  indicates  its  relation  to 
present  time.  What  is  the  use  and  meaning  of  will? 
May  asserts  love  of  he,  and  indicates  possibility  and  future 
time. 

He  will  love  was  originally  He  wills  (or  wishes)  to  love. 
Will  has  lost  its  original  meaning,  wish  or  determine,  and 
has  become  an  asserter  containing  the  adverbial  modifica- 
tion of  time.  He  will  love  means  He  loves  in  the  future. 
Such  combinations  really  amount,  when  analyzed,  to 
phrases.  Will  contains  the  assertive  relation  part,  love 
contains  the  basal  idea  part,  and  will  again  contains  an 
adverbial  time  element.  But  these  parts  are  all  so  welded 
together  in  the  mind  that  it  is  very  hard  to  separate  them. 

The  verbal  attributes  in  these  groups  are  properly  called 
the  principal  verbs,  and  the  helping  verbs  are  called  the 
auxiliaries. 

85.     INFLECTED  AUXILIARIES. 

I  have  a  good  record. 

I  have  spoken  to  the  man. 

In  which  of  these  sentences  is  have  an  auxiliary  ?  In 
which  is  it  a  predicate  verb  ? 


TO  HAVE  169 

The  servants  do  good  work. 
They  do  try  to  please. 

What  is  the  difference  between  these  two  uses  of  do  ? 
The  verbs  to  have  and  to  do  are  in  some  cases  asserters, 
and  in  some  cases  predicate  verbs. 

I  have  gone.  I  do  go. 

-   He  has  gone.  He  does  go. 

He  has  money.  He  does  fine  work. 

These  two  verbs,  to  have  and  to  do,  which  are  predicate 
verbs  as  well  as  auxiliaries,  are  inflected  to  agree  with  the 
subject  in  both  cases. 

I  will  go. 

He  will  go. 

He  wills  that  you  should  go. 

If  will  is  used  in  the  sense  of  to  wish,  it  also  is  a  predi- 
cate verb.  When  thus  used  it  is  inflected  regularly,  —  like 
love,  p.  155, — thus  differing  from  the  auxiliary,  as  seen 
above. 

86.     THE  VERB    TO  HAVE. 

The  ordinary  present  forms  of  the  verb  to  have  are  have 

and  has. 

PRESENT. 

I  have  We  have 

You  have  (thou  hast)  You  (ye)  have 

He,  she,  it  has  (hath)  They  have 

Having  is  the  present  participle,  and  had  is  the  past  predicate  verb 
and  perfect  participle  (in  the  past,  also,  there  is  the  solemn  style  "thou 
hadst ") . 

EXAMPLES.     I  had  a  pair  of  pistols  in  my  belt. 

The  poor  man,  having  had  no  supper,  now  ate  hungrily. 


1 70  VERBS 

Since  it  is  possible  to  possess  only  a  completed  action, 
the  verb  to  have  used  as  an  asserter  combines  with  the 
perfect  participle  of  the  principal  verb.  It  therefore 
always  asserts  completion  of  the  act  at  the  time  referred  to. 

I  have  written  what  I  wished,  (completed  before  now) 
I  had  written  what  I  wished,  (completed  before  then) 
The  President  has  sent  a  message  to  Congress,  (now 

finished) 
Before  the  message  came  Congress  had  adjourned,    (then 

finished) 

These  groups  are  called  the  present  perfect  and  past 
perfect  tenses,  because  the  one  asserts  perfected  or  com- 
pleted action  in  present  time,  while  the  other  asserts  per- 
fected or  completed  action  in  past  time. 

Exercise. 
Explain  the  uses  of  the  asserters  in  the  following  verb  groups  :  — 

1.  I  have  walked  to  school  every  day  this  year. 

2.  The  moon  has  reached  the  full. 

3.  John  had  spoken  to  me  of  the  case  before  the  man  appeared. 

4.  Our  boys  have  fled. 

5.  The  child  has  lost  his  way. 

6.  They  have  decided  to  remain  at  home. 

7.  The  city  had  prepared  for  a  great  number  of  visitors. 

8.  The  rose  has  blossomed  in  the  night. 

9.  I  have  had  playmates  ;  I  have  had  companions. 

10.  Clouds  have  gathered  rapidly. 

1 1 .  You  had  just  gone  when  I  arrived. 

12.  He  has  spent  all  his  life  in  letting  down  empty  buckets  into  empty 

wells. 

13.  She  looked  as  if  she  had  walked  straight  out  of  the  ark. 

14.  You  have  waked  me  too  soon  ;  I  must  slumber  again. 

15.  Had  you  seen  the  man  before  I  met  you? 

1 6.  There  have  been  many  visitors  here  to-day. 

17.  Will  you  come  to  me  when  you  have  done  the  work? 


TO  DO 


87.     TO  DO. 


I/I 


The  ordinary  present  forms  of  the  verb  to  do  are  do  and 
does. 

PRESENT. 

I  do  We  do 

You  do  (thou  dost)  You  (ye)  do 

He,  she,  it  does  (doth)  They  do 

Doing  is  the  present  participle,  did  is  the  past  predicate  verb  (with 
"thou  didst  "  in  solemn  style),  and  done  is  the  perfect  participle. 

EXAMPLES.     We  did  our  best,  and  found  comfort  in  so  doing,  hence 
we  rested  satisfied  with  work  well  done. 

Since  the  verb  to  do  really  takes  the  infinitive  as  its 
object  when  used  as  an  asserter,  it  combines  with  the  sim- 
ple form  of  the  principal  verb.  Although  frequently  used 
merely  as  an  asserter,  it  often  emphasizes  the  meaning  of 
the  principal  verb  when  placed  next  to  it,  combining  the 
functions  of  adverbial  modifier  and  asserter. 

EXAMPLES.     I  do  go.     (implying  that  the  going  has  been  doubted) 
It  is  not  true  that  I  failed  in  my  examination ;  I  tell 
you  I  did  pass  it  with  credit. 

It  thus  introduces  an  imperative  sentence. 
EXAMPLE.     Do  write. 

It  often,  however,  introduces  an  interrogative  sentence 
without  any  emphatic  value,  serving  merely  as  asserter. 
EXAMPLE.     Do  you  ride  often  ? 

Combined  with  not  it  is  used  without  emphatic  value  in 
all  three  kinds  of  sentences. 
EXAMPLES.     I  do  not  wish  it. 

Don't  you  wish  it? 
Do  not  ask  me. 


1 72  VERBS 

Exercise. 
Give  the  uses  of  the  verb  to  do  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  Do  you  see  yonder  cloud  that's  almost  in  the  shape  of  a  camel  ? 

2.  Our  fears  do  make  us  traitors. 

3.  These  things  are  beyond  all  use, 
And  I  do  not  fear  them. 

4.  If  we  do  meet  again,  why,  we  shall  smile. 

5.  Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world  like  a  Colossus. 

6.  I  do  remember  an  apothecary's 
And  hereabouts  he  dwells. 

7.  Did  the  boy  understand  your  message  ? 

8.  Eyes  did  once  inhabit  those  holes. 

9.  John  does  improve  in  his  writing. 

10.  We  did  not  approve  of  the  action  of  the  committee. 

1 1 .  Does  your  father  write  for  the  Boston  Advertiser  ? 

88.     PURE  AUXILIARIES. 

Some  verbs  have  lost  their  predicate  verb  uses  entirely 
and  are  now  used  only  as  asserters  or  auxiliaries.  They 
are  can,  may,  shall,  and  must.  Will,  also,  is  rarely  used 
as  a  predicate  verb.  All  five  of  these  asserters  (with 
their  associated  or  so-called  "past"  forms,  could,  might, 
should,  and  would)  combine  with  the  simple  forms  of  verbs 
in  making  sentences. 

They  indicate :  — 

a.  Future  time,  as  the  present  forms  of  shall  and  will. 
EXAMPLES.     I  shall  come  to-morrow. 

You  will  catch  your  train  if  you  hurry. 

b.  Some  condition  of  the  verb's  meaning  in  regard  to 
the  subject,  as  the  "past"  forms  of  shall  and  will  (should 
and  would)  ;  can  and  may,  with  their  associated  forms  could 
and  might ;  and  must. 


PURE .  A  U XI LI  ARIES  1 73 

EXAMPLES.  I  can  go,  but  I  may  not  go,  for  I  should  study  and  I 
must  practice. 

Can,  besides  asserting,  affects  the  relation  of  go  to  its  subject  by 
expressing  ability.  May  affects  the  relation  of  go  by  expressing  pos- 
sibility or  permission.  Should  affects  the  relation  of  study  by  express- 
ing duty,  and  must  affects  the  relation  of  practice  by  expressing 
necessity. 

Shall  and  zvill  are  similarly  used  in  such  sentences  as 
You  shall  do  what  I  zuish  ;  I  will  not  obey  you. 

NOTE.  —  The  shades  of  meaning  added  by  the  auxiliaries  of  this  second  class 
give  rise  to  the  term  potential  mood,  applied  to  the  verb  groups  containing  them. 
The  ordinary  inflectional  forms  and  the  predicate  bases  formed  by  the  other 
asserters  (to  be,  to  have,  to  do,  and  shall  and  will  meaning  simple  future)  are 
called  the  indicative  mood. 

Shall  and  will  are  very  apt  to  be  misused,  especially  by 
foreigners,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Frenchman  who  cried,  "  I 
will  drown.  No  one  shall  help  me." 

I  will  take  lunch,  for  I  shall  be  hungry. 

You  shall  go  with  me,  and  you  will  never  forget  the  trip. 

He  shall  go  home  early,  for  he  will  be  tired. 

/  will  means  I  have  determined  ;  /  shall  indicates  simple 
futurity ;  You  will  indicates  simple  futurity ;  You  shall 
means  you  are  compelled ;  He  will  indicates  futurity ;  He 
shall  means  he  is  compelled. 

Simple  futurity  is  indicated  by  shall  in  the  first  person, 
and  by  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons.  Determina- 
tion is  indicated  by  will  in  the  first  person.  Compulsion  is 
indicated  by  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

Shall  and  will,  indicating  simple  futurity,  form  verb 
groups  called  the  future  and  future  perfect  tenses. 

EXAMPLE.     I  shall  read  it  Tuesday,     (future) 

He  will  have  finished  it  then,     (future  perfect :  that  is, 
completed  in  the  future) 


VERBS 


89.     THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

If  he  breathes,  I  am  not  able  to  perceive  it. 

If  the  dead  man  speak,  I  shall  yet  not  give  up  his  property. 

In  expressing  a  doubt  about  a  future  event  with  if  or 
whether,  the  s  is  often  not  added  to  the  predicate  verb 
in  the  third  person.  It  is  never  added  if  the  event 
doubted  is  impossible. 

If  he  but  speak  to  us,  we  shall  rejoice. 

This  form  is  used  after  if  when  but  follows  and  futurity 
is  denoted.  Unless  both  futurity  and  contingency  are  im- 
plied the  s  is  usually  retained. 

This  omission  of  s  in  the  verb  used  in  a  conditional 
clause  leaves  the  form  often  called  the  subjunctive  mood 
or  subjunctive  form  of  the  verb. 

A  similar  form,  from  which  should  is  omitted,  occurs 
after  lest  and  that  annexed  to  a  command. 

EXAMPLE.     Disturb  him  not,  lest  he  (should)  slay  thee. 

In  the  subjunctive  mood  to  be  changes  much  more  than 
other  verbs,  becoming  throughout, 

PRESENT  —  be.         PAST  —  were. 


If  I  be  there,  I  will  write  to  you. 
The  present  tense  indicates  a  doubtful  future. 
If  I  were  there,  I  would  vote  for  you. 

The  past  tense  indicates  an  impossible  present. 
It  is  more  customary  to  say,  If  I  am  there  to-morrow, 
than  If  I  be  there  to-morrow.     The  use  of  the  past  tense 


REVIEW  175 

of  the  subjunctive  is  more  common,  but  this  mood  is  often 
improperly  used.  We  should  say,  If  I  was  there  yesterday. 
If  the  past  tense  is  used  to  indicate  present  time,  that 
tense  should  be  subjunctive.  If  I  was  noiv  the  director 
is  therefore  incorrect. 

EXAMPLES.     If  I  am  here  now  I  do  not  mean  to  stay. 
If  I  were  there  now  I  should  be  happy. 

90.     REVIEW. 
Exercise. 

Give  reasons  for  the  verb  forms  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1 .  Though  he  fall,  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down. 

2.  If  he  promise,  he  will  surely  perform. 

3.  Whether  he  go  or  stay,  my  plan  will  not  be  changed. 

4.  If  I  were  you,  I  would  leave  town  at  once. 

5.  If  he  but  perform  as  he  promises,  the  result  will  be  good. 

6.  If  he  performs  as  he  has  promised,  I  do  not  see  the  result. 

7.  If  he  be  alone,  give  him  the  letters. 

8.  If  he  speaks  as  he  thinks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted. 

9.  If  a  man  smite  his  servant  and  he  die,  he  shall  surely  be  put  to 

death. 

10.    Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 
n.    If  he  acquire  riches,  they  will  corrupt  his  mind. 

Insert  the  proper  verb  form  in  each  of  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  If  the  wind ,  it  makes  no  noise. 

2.  If  the  wind too  hard,  we  shall  capsize. 

3.  Fan  her  lest  she . 

4.  I  should  be  sorry  if  he to  fail. 

5.  Though  a  man against  thee  seventy  times  seven,  yet  forgive 

him. 

6.  Whether  he or  not,  wait  for  him. 

7.  If  he there,  I  missed  him. 

8.  I  will  come  if  it . 

9.  If  he there  I  shall  see  him. 

NOTE.  —  For  "  complete  conjugation  "  of  verbs,  see  page  295. 


176  VERBS 

91.    THE  NATURE  OF  PARTICIPLES. 

The  nature  of  every  part  of  speech  determines  its  classi- 
fication, and  this  nature  also  determines  the  kind  of  modifier 
it  takes.  Hence  a  noun  always  has  only  adjective  modi- 
fiers. So  also  the  modifiers  of  a  verb  are  always  objective 
and  adverbial.  Adjectives  also  allow  adverbial  modifiers  ; 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  adverbial  modifier 
of  an  adjective  generally  indicates  degree.  This  fact 
sometimes  helps  in  deciding  whether  a  given  word  is  a 
verb  or  an  adjective. 

The  swiftly  flowing  stream. 
The  very  trying  ordeal. 

Flowing  is  a  verb,  used  adjectively,  and  is  modified  by 
the  adverbial  element  siviftly,  which  tells  how.  Trying  is 
sometimes  a  verb,  but  is  here  an  adjective,  modified  by  the 
adverbial  modifier  very,  which  indicates  degree. 

I  am  hurt  by  this  ring.  This  ring  hurts  me. 

I  am  hurt  beyond  recovery.     I  am  a  hurt  person. 

In  the  first  case,  am  is  followed  by  a  verbal  attribute 
hurt,  the  verbal  nature  being  seen  when  the  sentence  is 
inverted.  In  the  second  case,  the  attribute  is  an  adjective, 
the  idea  of  the  action  being  lost,  as  is  seen  by  inserting  an 
attribute  noun. 

The  same  attribute  may  be  verbal  or  adjective  according  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  idea  of  action  is  retained  in  it. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  when  the  noun  representing  the 
actor  is  or  may  be  added  without  changing  the  meaning  of 
the  attribute,  the  verb  group  is  passive,  arising  from  a 
transitive  verb;  otherwise  the  predicate  base  is  neither 


SPELLING    OF   VERB   FORMS  1 77 

active  nor  passive  but   consists  of  asserter  and  adjective 

attribute. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  participial  forms  in  the  following  and  tell  which  are  still 
participles  and  which  are  adjectives. 

1.  A  brightly  shining  star  was  seen  above  the  manger. 

2.  The  very  smiling  maiden  was  dressed  in  robes  of  green, 

3.  A  charming  prospect  lay  before  us. 

4.  His  music  is  charming  our  fears  to  rest. 

5.  An  alluring  song  was  sung  by  the  sirens. 

6.  The  voices  alluring  us  to  approach  sounded  fainter  as  we  receded. 

7.  I  was  placed  between  two  boys. 

8.  The  hotel  is  placed  convenient  to  the  station. 

9.  The  iced  drinks  are  cooling. 
10.  The  street  was  well  paved. 


92.     SPELLING  OF  VERB  FORMS. 

The  present  tense,  past  tense,  present  participle,  and  perfect  participle 
of  a  verb  are  called  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

PRESENT.  PRES.  PART.  PAST.  PERF.  PART. 

love  loving  loved                loved 

speak  speaking  spoke               spoken 


PRESENT.  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE.  PAST. 

set  setting  set 

refer  referring  referred 

Monosyllabic  verbs,  and  polysyllabic  verbs  with  the 
accent  on  the  last  syllable,  which  end  in  a  single  con- 
sonant preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  -final 
consonant  when  ing  or  ed  is  added. 

NOTE.  —  For  list  of  irregular  verbs,  see  page  289. 
P.  C.  GRAM.  — 12 


VERBS 


93.     REVIEW 

In  parsing  a  verb,  or  verb  group,  follow  the  subjoined 

outline :  — 

Asserter  only 

Composed  of  asserter  and  verbal 

attribute 
Predicate  verb 


Uses 


Forms 


Classes 


Modifiers 


Predicative 

Substantive 

Adjective 

Objective 

Adverbial 


Based  on 

use 

Real  inflec-  . 
tions 

Based  on  f 
time      { 

Based  on  f 
subject 

Voice 

Auxiliary 
variations 

Tense 

Based  on 

form 

Based  on 

nature 


Present   infinitive   (ac- 
tive) 

Present  participle 
Complete  participle 
Present 
Past 

Ordinary 

|  Third  person  singular 
[  Solemn  forms 
Active 
Passive 
f  Indicative 
]  Potential 
(  Subjunctive 
Present  perfect 
Past  perfect 
Future 

Future  perfect 
r  Ordinary 
Style         |  Progressive 

I  Emphatic 
f  Regular 
{  Irregular 
f  Transitive 
I  Intransitive 


Objective  elements 
Adverbial  elements 


REVIEW  1/9 

Exercise. 
Parse  the  verbs  and  verb  groups  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1 .  Men  are  but  children  of  a  larger  growth. 

2.  Drawing  near  her  death,  she  sent  most  pious  thoughts  as  harbingers 

to  heaven. 

3.  To  execute  laws  is  a  royal  office;  to  execute  orders  is  not  to  be  a 

king. 

4.  He  is  the  richest  author  that  ever  grazed  the  commons  of  literature. 

5 .  I  am  fond  of  the  company  of  ladies. 

6.  Hanging  was  the  worst  use  a  man  could  be  put  to. 

7.  All  the  judges  had  taken  their  seats, 
Before  Sir  Roger  came. 

8.  Gratitude  is  a  fruit  of  great  cultivation ;  you  do  not  find  it  among 

gross  people. 

9.  Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances. 

10.  Prayer  is  the  soul's  sincere  desire, 

Uttered  or  unexpressed. 

1 1 .  The  moving  moon  went  up  the  sky, 
And  nowhere  did  abide. 

12.  Rose  Aylmar.  when  those  wakeful  eyes 

May  weep,  but  never  see, 
A  night  of  memories  and  sighs 
I  consecrate  to  thee. 

13.  I  write  as  others  wrote. 

14.  The  siren  waits  thee,  singing  songs  for  song. 

1 5 .  Few,  few  shall  part  where  many  meet ! 
The  snow  shall  be  their  winding  sheet. 

1 6.  Coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before. 

17.  To  bear  is  to  conquer  our  fate. 

1 8.  The  north  wind  doth  blow. 
And  we  shall  have  snow, 

And  what  will  the  robin  do  then,  poor  thing! 

19.  The  gentleman  cannot  have  forgotten  his  own  sentiment. 

20.  Sir,  I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  President. 

21.  The  star-spangled  banner,  oh  long  may  it  wave. 

22.  Then  conquer  we  must,  for  our  cause  it  is  just. 

23.  There  was  a  little  man,  and  he  had  a  little  soul ; 

And  he  said,  Little  Soul,  let  us  try,  try,  try. 


ISO  VERBS 

» 

24.  When  true  hearts  lie  withered 

And  fond  ones  are  flown, 
Oh,  who  would  inhabit 
This  bleak  world  alone? 

25.  Earth  has  no  sorrow  that  heaven  cannot  heal. 

26.  The  stockings  were  hung  by  the  chimney  with  care, 
In  hopes  that  St.  Nicholas  soon  would  be  there. 

27.  And,  Oh  !  if  there  be  an  Elysium  on  earth, 

It  is  this,  it  is  this. 

28.  He  who  would  thrive  must  rise  at  five. 

29.  A  power  has  risen  up  in  the  government. 

30.  America  has  furnished  to  the  world  the  character  of  Washington, 
ji.    And   if  our  American  institutions   had   done   nothing  else,  that 

alone  would  have  entitled  them  to  the  respect  of  mankind. 

32.  Although  no  sculptural  marble  should  rise  to  their  memory  nor 

engraved  stone  bear  records  of  their  deeds,  yet  will  their  resem- 
blance be  as  lasting  as  the  land  they  honored. 

33.  Thou  art  gone  to  the  grave  ;  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee ; 
Though  sorrows  and  darkness  encompass  thy  tomb. 

34.  And  thus  the  heart  will  break,  yet  brokenly  live  on. 

35.  He  rushed  into  the  field,  and  foremost  fighting  fell. 

36.  You  may  break,  you  may  shatter 

The  vase  if  you  will ; 
But  the  scent  of  the  roses 
Will  hang  round  it  still. 

37.  Perhaps  the  early  grave 

Which  men  weep  over  may  be  meant  to  save. 

38.  Into  each  life  some  rain  must  fall ; 

Some  days  must  be  dark  and  dreary. 

39.  Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note, 
As  his  corse  to  the  ramparts  we  hurried. 

40.  But  to  the  hero,  when  his  sword 

Has  won  the  battle  for  the  free, 
Thy  voice  sounds  like  a  prophetic  word ; 
And  in  its  hollow  tones  are  heard 

The  thanks  of  millions  yet  to  be. 

41 .  As  though  a  rose  should  shut  and  be  a  bud  again. 

42.  The  days  of  peace  and  slumbrous  calm  are  fled. 

43.  Can  such  things  be  ! 


CAUTIONS  l8l 

44.  She  may  still  exist  in  undiminished  vigor,  when  some  traveler 

from  New  Zealand  shall,  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  solitude,  take  his 
stand  on  a  broken  arch  of  London  Bridge  to  sketch  the  ruins 
of  St.  Paul's. 

45.  If  a  single   man  plant  himself  indomitably  on  his  instincts  and 

there  abide,  the  huge  world  will  come  round  to  him. 

46.  Though  love  repine,  and  reason  chafe, 

There  comes  a  voice  without  reply,  — 
'Tis  man's  perdition  to  be  safe 

When  for  the  truth  he  ought  to  die. 

47.  The  Egremonts  had  never  said  anything  that  was  remembered, 

or  done  anything  that  could  be  recalled. 

48.  Come  o'er  the  moonlit  sea; 
The  waves  are  brightly  glowing. 

49.  Thy  leaf  has  perished  in  the  green, 

And  while  we  breathe  beneath  the  sun, 
The  world,  which  credits  what  is  done, 
Is  cold  to  all  that  might  have  been. 

(For  agreement  and  government  of  verbs,  see  Chapter 
XVI,  pages  229-232.) 

94.     CAUTIONS. 

I.    Do  not  use  the  complete  participle  for  the  past  tense. 
Write  the  correct  form  in  the  following  sentences : — 

1 .  I  saw    her  yesterday. 

seen 

2.  He  done  the  example  beautifully. 

did 

3.  John  drew     a  beautiful  sketch. 

drawn 

lay 

4.  The  sick  child  lain  on  the  sofa. 

laid 

5.  The  boy  tak£n  the  book  to  the  library. 


I 82  VERBS 

II.  Do  not  use  an  asserter  with  the  past  tense. 
Write  correctly :  — 

1.  She  has  worn  a  green  hat  all  winter. 

wore 

2.  John  had  wrote     a  letter. 

written 

3.  The  horse  has  been  drove    too  fast. 

driven 

4.  My  mother  has  &lven  me  ten  dollars. 

gave 

c .   The  nurse  has  the  child  out  into  the  air. 

took 

seen   .        ..       . 

6.  Have  you          the  eclipse? 

saw 

7.  Mary  has  ,        her  work  faithfully. 

III.  General  truths  should  be  expressed  in  the  present 
tense. 

Fill  the  blanks  correctly :  — 

1 .  Scientists  have  proved  that  the  earth round. 

2.  We  proved  that  the  air weight. 

3.  So  this  is  your  cousin ;  what  did  you  say  his  name ? 

4.  She  told  me  that  seven  and  eight fifteen. 

5.  It  was  discovered  that  the  cause  of  the  tides the  moon. 

IV.  Be  careful  to   use    properly  the  inflections  deter- 
mined by  the  subject.     The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject 
in  person,  and  usually  has  the  number  form  demanded  by 
the  sense  of  its  subject  (see  page  89). 

Fill  the  blanks  correctly  :  — 

1 .  They here  this  morning. 

2.  Circumstances cases. 

3.  When  I in  Rome  I  visited  the  Vatican  Gallery. 

4. the  parcels  come  from  the  shop? 

5.    The  number  of  students yearly. 


CAUTIONS  183 

6.  The  hopes  of  youth shattered. 

7.  There ten  cents  of  your  change. 

8.  "  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables  " written  by  Hawthorne. 

9.  Not  one  of  his  features moving. 

10.  The  children hard. 

1 1 .  You  and  I written  one  exercise. 

12.  Man  after  man to  his  long  home. 

13.  "  Well," I,  "you  are  wrong.1' 

14.  Ten too  many  to  go  at  once. 

15.  There many  millions  of  dollars  in  the  treasury. 

1 6.  Spring come,  and  with  it come  thousands  of  birds. 

V.  But  the  pronoun  you,  even  when  meaning  one,  de- 
mands the  plural  form  of  the  verb. 

Fill  the  blanks  correctly  :  — 

1 .  I  was  coming ;  you coming,  too. 

2.  You ill  yesterday.     How you  to-day  ? 

VI.  Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  used  substantively 
and  connected  by  or  or  nor  require  a  verb  which  shall 
agree  with  the  last  noun. 

Insert  the  correct  form  of  the  verb  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  Either  John  or  Mary wrong. 

2.  Neither  you  nor  he correct. 

3.  Did  he  say  that  you  or  I to  have  the  carriage  this  morning? 

VII.  a.   To  lie  means  to  repose;  its  past  tense  is  lay, 
and  its  perfect  participle  is  lain.      To  lay  means  to  place, 
drop,  or  put  down ;  its  past  tense  and  its  perfect  participle 
are  laid. 

Insert  the  proper  form  in  each  blank  space  of  the  following :  — 

1 .  I down  to  rest,  and  slept  as  soon  as  I  —  —  my  head  on  the 

pillow. 

2.  I  have  often my  hand  on  the  child  to  see  if  he  were  not  dead, 

because  he  has so  quiet. 

3.  The  hen  sometimes  -    -  an  egg  which in  the  nest  for  some 

time  before  we  found  it. 


1 84  VERBS 

b.  The  verb  to  sit  means  to  rest  in  a  sitting  posture; 
its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  are  sat.  The  verb  to 
set  means  to  place;  its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle 
are  set. 

Insert  the  proper  word  in  each  blank  space  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

1 .  I in  my  chair,  and  as  I  dozed  some  one a  vase  of  flowers 

on  the  table  by  my  side. 

2.  Though  I down  daily  to  write,  I  sometimes  fail  to pen  to 

paper. 

3.  I  have  —  —  a  guard  over  my  tongue. 

4.  I  have in  silence. 

NOTE.  —  The  sun,  however,  sets  in  the  west. 


CHAPTER   X.— ADVERBS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

The  real  base  of  a  sentence  is  the  subject  base. 

The  verb  and  the  adjective,  which  are  alike  in  belonging  to  the 
noun  or  pronoun,  may  be  called  primary  modifiers ;  and  their  modifiers 
may  be  called  secondary  modifiers. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  fitted  by  meaning  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb. 

Two  special  classes  of  adverbs  are  conjunctive  and  interrogative 
adverbs. 

Some  adverbs  are  compared. 

95.     PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  MODIFIERS. 

I  should  have  gone  yesterday. 

In  analysis  yesterday  is  an  adverbial  element  modifying 
the  predicate  base,  should  have  gone. 

An  element  modifying  a  verb  or  predicate  base  (without 
receiving  action)  is  adverbial. 

The  very  large  dog  bit  me. 

Very  is  an  adverbial  element  modifying  the  adjective 
large.  A  modifier  of  an  adjective  also  is  an  adverbial 
modifier. 

In  the  sentence,  An  exceedingly  heavy  gale  was  then 
blowing  fiercely )  exceedingly  is  adverbial  because  it  modi- 
fies the  adjective  heavy ;  then  and  fiercely  are  adverbial 
because  they  modify  the  verb  blowing. 

185 


1 86  ADVERBS 

We  have  seen,  then,  that  adverbial  modifiers  modify 
verbs  and  adjectives.  It  seems  at  first  sight  difficult  to 
find  any  common  qualities  for  words  performing  such 
apparently  different  duties  as  the  modifiers  of  adjectives 
and  of  verbs,  but  a  closer  inspection  of  what  a  sentence 
really  is,  will  show  why  the  same  term  should  be  applied 
to  the  modifiers  of  these  different  parts  of  speech. 

The  sentence,  The  big  dog  is  running,  is  a  statement 
about  a  dog.  Dog  is  really  the  basis  of  that  sentence. 
The  and  big  indicate  which  dog,  is  asserts  about  the  dog, 
and  running  is  the  action  of  the  dog. 

The  sentence,  Few  old  men  are  living,  is  a  scatement 
about  men;  few,  old,  are,  and  living,  all  refer  to  men. 
The  substantive  base  is,  therefore,  the  real  basis  of  the 
sentence  ;  and  adjective  elements,  asserter,  and  verbal  com- 
plement or  predicate  verb  may  all  be  regarded  as  primary 
modifiers  referring  to  this  true  base  of  the  sentence. 

Adverbial  elements  are  secondary  modifiers,  that  is,  modi- 
fiers of  these  primary  modifiers ;  and  an  adverbial  element 
may  be  used  to  modify  an  adjective,  an  asserter,  a  predi- 
cate verb,  a  verbal  complement,  or  an  entire  predicate  base. 

EXAMPLES.     A  very  tall  tree  is  now  growing  finely  near  the  gate. 

A  word  fitted  by  nature  to  modify  a  verb  or  an  adjective 
is  called  an  adverb. 

EXAMPLES.     Her  very  violent  temper  displayed  itself  violently. 


Her  very  violent  temper  displayed  itself  very  violently. 

Since  many  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives  and 
modified  by  the  same  elements  or  words  which  modify 
those  adjectives,  the  modifiers  of  adverbs  are  adverbial, 
and  words  modifying  adverbs  are  themselves  called  adverbs. 


PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY  MODIFIERS  187 

An  adverb  is  a  word  fitted  by  nature  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  another  adverb. 

Be  careful  to  distinguish  between  adverb  and  adverbial 
element  or  modifier.-  An  adverb  is  a  word,  so  called 
because  of  its  nature  or  meaning ;  but  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment or  modifier  may  consist  of  one  or  more  words,  and 
is  so  called  from  its  use  in  the  sentence.  An  adverb  is 
generally  an  adverbial  modifier,  but  many  adverbial  modi- 
fiers are  not  adverbs,  even  when  containing  only  one  word. 

EXAMPLE.     A  man  very  proud  of  his  appearance  dreads  ridicule. 
Proud  is  modified  by  the  adverb  very,  and  by  the  adverbial  phrase 
of  his  appearance. 

EXAMPLE.     He  drove  swifter  than  the  wind. 

Swifter  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  clause  than  the  wind  (goes)* 

EXAMPLE.     He  drove  quite  swiftly  toward  the  house. 
Swiftly  is  an  adverb  modifying  drove ;  toward  the  house  is  an  ad- 
verbial phrase  modifying  drove ;  quite  is  an  adverb  modifying  swiftly. 

EXAMPLE.     I  came  home  quickly. 

Home  is  a  noun  used  as  an  adverbial  element ;  quickly  is  an  adverb 
used  as  an  adverbial  element. 

EXAMPLE.     Quickly  is  not  too  strong  a  word. 
Quickly  is  an  adverb  used  as  a  substantive  element. 


Exercise. 

Select  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  elements  from  the  following 
sentences :  — 

1 .  My  eyes  make  pictures  when  they  are  shut. 

2.  Strongly  it  bears  us  along  in  swelling  and  limitless  billows. 

3.  Go  where  glory  waits  thee! 
But  while  fame  elates  thee, 
Oh,  still  remember  me! 

4.  Quoth  the  Raven,  "  Nevermore.'1 

5.  Then  I  shall  see  you  again. 


1 88  ADVERBS 


96.    CLASSES  AND  FORMS  OF  ADVERBS. 

Two  classes  of  adverbs  must  be  distinguished  because 
they  do  double  duty. 

An  adverb  which  not  only  serves  as  an  adverbial  ele- 
ment but  is  used  to  introduce  an  interrogative  sentence,  is 
an  interrogative  adverb. 

EXAMPLES.    Why  do  you  come  ? 
When  did  it  happen? 
How  are  you  ? 

A  word  serving  as  a  subordinate  connective  and  per- 
forming the  office  of  an  adverbial  element  in  the  clause 
which  it  introduces,  is  a  relative  adverb  or  a  conjunctive 
adverb. 

EXAMPLES.     Plymouth  was  founded  when  the  Pilgrims  landed. 

The  place  where  Washington  lived  is  visited  by  many 
people. 

An  interrogative  adverb  is  an  adverb  which  indicates  that  the  sen- 
tence or  clause  in  which  it  occurs  is  interrogative. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  is  an  adverb  which  serves  as  a  subordinate  con- 
nective. 

Some  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  vary  in  form  to  express 
the  three  degrees  of  comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 


•SITIVE. 

COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

soon 

sooner 

soonest 

well 

better 

best 

early 

earlier 

earliest 

Most  adverbs  do  not  vary  in  form,  but,  like  adjectives 
again,  express  the  variations  of  meaning  by  the  help  of  the 
words  more  and  most  (and  less  and  least). 

EXAMPLE.     Indulgently,  more  indulgently,  most  indulgently. 


CAUTIONS 


189 


97.     REVIEW. 

In  parsing  an  adverb,  follow  the  subjoined  outline:  — 

f  Ordinary 

Classes  \  Interrogative 
[  Conjunctive 


Adverbs 


Forms     (If  compared) 


Uses      I  To  modify 
1  (If  double) 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 


To  introduce  questions 
To  show  relation 
Modifiers  —  Adverbial  elements 


Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  very  sick  child  smiled  pleasantly,  but  answered  feebly. 

2.  He  staid  not  for  brake,  and  he  stopped  not  for  stone, 
He  swam  the  Eske  River  where  ford  there  was  none, 
But  ere  he  alighted  at  Netherby  Gate, 

The  bride  had  consented,  the  gallant  came  late. 

3.  There  are  maidens  in  Scotland  more  lovely  by  far. 

4.  An  indignant  cry  burst  involuntarily  from  the  people. 

5.  Why  do  you  move  so  slowly  ? 

6.  It  was  dark  when  Ben  Hur  turned  into  a  narrow  lane. 

7.  I  heard  the  mother  speaking  very  earnestly  to  the  boy  before  he 

went  away. 

8.  The  house  where  the  witches  were  tried  still  stands  in  Salem. 

9.  The  scene  was  more  beautiful  far  than  we  had  anticipated. 


98.     CAUTIONS. 

I.    Do  not  use  two  negatives  to  make  one  denial. 

Make  two  correct  sentences,  either  of  which  would   express  the 
meaning  intended  in  these  sentences:  — 

T  cannot        no     . 
i.    I  go         further, 

can  any 


ADVERBS 

-  do         .  anything 

2.  I   ,  know       '  .     °  about  it. 

do  not  nothing 

_  can        ever          anything     .  .   . 

3.  I  do      ;,  .     &  with  her. 

cannot  never        nothing 

Introduce  never  or  no,  or  both  never  and  no,  in  these  sentences,  to 
produce  a  negative  meaning  :  — 

1.  He  will  read  more. 

2.  John  took  honors  at  school. 

II.     The  quality  of  an  object  is  described  by  an  adjec- 
tive ;  the  manner  of  an  action,  by  an  adverb. 

Write  correctly  :  — 

I.    She  walks 


rapidly. 

slowly. 


2.   The  stream  seemed  .    at  that  point. 

rapidly 


V   He  was  told  to  walk    , 

slow. 

charming. 

4.  She  appears    .         .     , 

charmingly. 

5.  I  whipped  him 

constantly. 

6.  We  were  forced  to  reprove  the  boy  constant 

.   beautifully. 

7.  In  spring  the  woods  look  .     ,   ..,  , 


III.     Do  not  place  an  adverb  between  the  parts  of  an 
infinitive. 

Insert   the   suggested  adverb   in   the  proper  place,  so  that  it  will 
modify  the  infinitive  :  — 

1 .  (kindly)  Will  you  ask  him  to  notify  me  of  the  arrival  of  the  box  ? 

2.  (well)  I  begged  her  to  consider  the  subject. 

3.  (quickly)  I  demanded  of  him  to  settle  the  bill. 

4.  (heartily)  1  wished  to  cooperate. 


CHAPTER   XI. —RELATION   WORDS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

Two  elements  may  be  coordinate,  or  one  element  may  be  subordinate 
to  the  other. 

The  relation  word's  which  show  the  subordination  of  one  word  to 
another  are  the  asserter,  the  infinitive  and  participle  of  an  asserter, 
and  the  preposition. 

The  relation  word  which  shows  the  subordinate  relation  of  a  clause 
is  a  subordinate  connective ;  it  may  perform  the  office  of  an  idea  word 
also,  or  it  may  be  a  pure  connective  or  conjunction. 

A  coordinate  conjunction  is  a  word  connecting  coordinate  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  which  perform  the  same  office. 

99.     KINDS  OF  RELATION  WORDS. 

The  parts  of  speech  so  far  considered  are  nouns  and 
pronouns,  representing  things ;  adjectives,  representing 
qualities  or  limitations  of  things ;  verbs,  representing  action, 
doing,  or  being  of  things  ;  and  adverbs,  representing  modi- 
fications of  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  verbs.  These  repre- 
sent the  ideas  out  of  which  sentences  and  discourse  are 
built.  These  are  what  in  analysis  we  have  known  as  the 
idea  words  in  sentences. 

When  we  think,  we  put  ideas  together;  related  ideas  thus 
put  together  form  a  thought. 

Relation,  as  we  have  seen,  is  known  by  logic ;  or  shown 
by  position,  as  in  the  .good  boy ;  by  forms,  as  in  brothers 
book ;  or  by  words,  as  in  the  house  by  the  sea,  John  and 
Charles,  The  boy  is  good. 

191 


192  RELATION    WORDS 

There  are  two  kinds  of  relation  between  elements  :  — 

1 .  Coordinate. 

John  and  Charles  study. 
John,  but  not  Charles,  studies. 

2.  Subordinate. 

I  shall  see  him  when  he  comes. 
He  will  come  if  he  can. 
He  lives  in  a  house. 

A  copula  asserts  the  subordinate  relation  of  a  word  to 
its  principal.  A  preposition  only  shows  the  subordinate 
relation  of  a  word  to  its  principal.  Give  examples. 

The  infinitive  and  the  participle  of  an  asserter  also  show 
relation.  Give  examples. 

All  connectives  join,  but  many  connectives  perform  two 
offices.  A  connective  which  shows  the  subordinate  rela- 
tion of  a  subordinate  clause  to  its  principal,  and  which  also 
serves  as  a  pronoun  in  the  subordinate  clause,  is  a  relative 
pronoun.  Give  an  example. 

A  connective  which  shows  the  subordinate  relation  of 
a  subordinate  clause  to  its  principal,  and  which  also  serves 
as  an  adjective  in  the  subordinate  clause,  is  a  relative 
adjective.  Give  an  example. 

A  connective  which  shows  the  subordinate  relation  of  a 
subordinate  clause  to  its  principal,  and  which  also  serves 
as  an  adverb  in  the  subordinate  clause,  is  a  conjunctive 
adverb.  Give  an  example. 

A  connective  which  shows  the  subordinate  relation  of  a 
subordinate  clause  to  its  principal  without  performing  any 
office  within  the  clause,  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  —  its 
sole  office  is  to  join,  and  that  which  it  joins  is  subordinate. 

EXAMPLE.     I  wish  that  you  would  come. 
Give  another  example. 


KINDS   OF  RELATION    WORDS  1 93 

A  connective  which  joins  two  coordinate  elements,  but 
does  not  itself  form  an  element  within  either  of  the  parts 
which  it  joins,  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  —  its  sole  office 
is  to  join,  and  those  things  which  it  joins  are  coordinate. 

EXAMPLE.     You  and  I  will  go. 

Give  another  example. 

A  conjunction  is  a  pure  connective. 

Conjunctions  are  coordinate  or  subordinate. 

A  coordinate  conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses,  and  indicates  equal  rank. 

A  word  which  joins  a  clause  to  the  word  it  modifies,  but  performs  no 
office  in  the  clause,  and  which  indicates  unequal  rank,  is  a  subordinate 
conjunction. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  which  joins  an  idea  word  to  the  word  which 
the  idea  modifies,  and  shows  unequal  rank. 

A  copula  or  a  copulative  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  the  relation  of 
a  subordinate  idea  word  to  its  principal. 

100.     COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

There  are  very  few  coordinate  conjunctions.  The  chief 
of  these  are  :  and —  showing  harmony  between  the  parts  : 

John  and  Charles  play  ball. 

but  — showing  contrast,  parts  not  in  har- 
mony : 

John  studies,  but  Charles  plays. 
or    —  offering  a  choice  : 
John  is  tired  or  lazy. 

or    —  showing  identity  : 
f 

Boz,  or  Charles  Dickens,  wrote  "Christ- 
mas Stories." 
nor  — denying  a  choice  : 

John  is  not  tired  nor  is  he  lazy, 
p.  c.  GRAM.  — 13 


194  RELATION   WORDS 

There  are  some  words,  adverbial  or  adjective  by  nature, 
and  performing  still  a  slightly  adverbial  office,  which  were 
used  at  first  with  the  conjunction  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
but  have  now  taken  upon  themselves  the  conjunctive  office 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  their  original  use.  These  are 
hence  also  called  coordinate  conjunctions,  in  spite  of 
the  trace  of  original  meaning  left.  The  following  will 
exemplify  them  :  — 

and  group  —  He  goes  [and]  so  I  go. 

He  plays  well  [and]  also  sings  with  expression. 

I  draw  with  skill  [and]  likewise  paint. 

He  danced  well ;  I  too  danced  a  little. 

Washington  was   a  soldier;    besides,  he  was  a  great 

statesman. 
but  group  —  I  do  not  know  him,  [but]  yet  I  like  him. 

The  enemy  retreated,  it  is  true,  [but]  still  we  failed  to 

pursue  them. 
I  doubt  my  power  to  do  it ;   [but]  however,  I  will  make 

the  attempt. 
or  group     —  The  master  must  rule  ;   [or]  else  would  he  be  himself  a 

slave. 

I  am  sure  that  he  came,  [or]  otherwise  I  should  have 
been  notified. 

Not  only  the  rich,  but  also  the  poor  flocked  in  with  their 

offerings. 

He  loved  botJi  rich  and  poor. 
John  is  cither  tired  or  lazy. 
John  is  neither  tired  nor  lazy. 

A  number  of  coordinate  connective  expressions  consist 
of  two  words  or  groups  of  words,  one  of  which  prepares 
the  mind  for  the  connective  effect  of  the  second. 


COORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS  1 95 

NOTE. — These  conjunctive  groups  may  be  divided  into  parts.  We  may  call 
only  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb,  but  the  conjunction,  and  also  an  adjective.  Many 
grammarians  call  them  correlatives. 

Thou  too  sail  on,  oh,  ship  of  state. 
And  must  this  body  die  ? 

Coordinate  conjunctions  often  introduce  sentences.  Then 
they  may  be  said  to  connect  the  sentence  with  some  pre- 
ceding thought. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  coordinate  conjunctions  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  what  they  connect :  — 

1.  Not  only  the  court,  but  the  common  people  also  praised  Columbus. 

2.  The  storm   is   coming,  therefore  the  insect  world  is  hushed  and 

still. 

3.  Neither  the  father  nor  his  son  can  be  found. 

4.  First   the   mother,   then  the   child,   and    finally  the   servant   de- 

scended. 

5.  My  reasons  are  urgent :  first,  I  wish  to  go  ;  secondly,  you  wish  me 

to  go ;  and  thirdly,  my  friends  there  wish  to  see  me. 

6.  I  dislike  him  ;  moreover,  he  dislikes  me. 

7.  I  was  hurt  as  well  as  you. 

8.  So,  the  day  being  fairly  ended,  we  retire  to  rest. 

9.  Oh,  I  was  tired  ;  so  I  soon  turned  in. 

10.  However,  the  day  came  at  last,  and  not  too  soon. 

1 1 .  This  came  to  an  end,  as  I  happened  to  know. 

12.  He  often  shirked  his  duties  or  put  them  off  on  some  one  else. 

13.  She  was  not  only  pretty,  but  very  graceful  too. 

14.  It  was  pleasant  to  be  called  a  gentleman  sportsman,  also  to  have 

a  chance  of  drawing  a  favorite  horse. 

15.  I  also  loved  her. 

16.  The  house,  likewise  the  barn,  was  painted  brown. 

17.  All  my  books,  besides  my  other  belongings,  are  there. 

1 8.  I  am  hurt,  yet  not  so  seriously  as  to  alarm  me. 

19.  He  said  so  himself;  otherwise,  I  should  have  doubted  it. 

20.  We  loved  him,  yet  we  feared  him. 

21.  Either  you  or  I  must  go. 

22.  We  loved  him  not ;  neither  did  we  fear  him. 


196  RELATION   WORDS 


101.     SUBORDINATE   RELATION  WORDS. 

Subordinate  relation  words  are  of  two  classes  :  subor- 
dinate connectives,  introducing  subordinate  clauses ;  and 
asserters  (copulas)  and  prepositions,  introducing  subordi- 
nate phrases. 

Relative  pronouns,  relative  adjectives,  conjunctive  ad- 
verbs, and  asserters  have  been  treated  under  the  parts  of 
speech  to  which  they  belong. 

I.    Subordinate  conjunctions. 

There  are  very  few  subordinate  conjunctions.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  define  a  subordinate  conjunction,  because  its  use 
in  the  substantive  clause  differs  from  its  use  in  adjective 
and  adverbial  clauses.  The  subordinate  conjunction  usually 
shows  the  relation  of  a  modifying  clause  to  its  principal. 
But  the  substantive  clause  has  no  principal,  since  the  con- 
junction serves  only  to  introduce  it. 

A  subordinate  conjunction  introduces  a  subordinate  clause. 

Oh,  that  he  might  come  ! 

In  a  few  cases,  a  subordinate  conjunction  seems  to  be 
used  like  a  coordinate  conjunction,  to  introduce  a  sentence. 
But  really,  in  the  case  above,  we  should  supply  something 
like  /  wish,  in  studying  the  structure  of  the  sentence. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  subordinate  relation  words  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  tell  the  class  and  office  of  each. 

1 .  I  speak  as  I  feel. 

2.  When  daylight  comes  we  must  be  off. 

3 .  I  will  go  if  you  will  accompany  me. 

4.  Where  the  flowers  bloom  sweetest,  there  the  bees  love  to  gather. 

5.  As  red  as  a  rose  is  she. 


SUBORDINATE  RELATION   WORDS  197 

6.  I  am  not  so  well  as  I  was. 

7.  Cheap  as  it  may  be,  I  cannot  buy  it. 

8.  However  I  may  feel,  I  shall  not  betray  it. 

II.    Prepositions. 

A  preposition  shows  the 'relation  of  an  idea  word  to  its  principal. 

If  a  preposition  has  for  its  object  a  clause,  it  is  hard  to 
distinguish  it  from  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

EXAMPLE.     Fred  Douglass  was  born  before  the  Civil  War. 
Before  is  a  preposition.     Its  object  is  Civil  War. 

EXAMPLE.  Fred  Douglass  was  born  before  the  Civil  War  put  an 
end  to  slavery. 

Before  is  a  subordinate  conjunction,  joining  the  clause  which  follows 
it  to  was  born. 

EXAMPLE.     We  agree  in  that  we  both  distrust  this  measure. 
In  is  a  preposition.     Its  object  is  the  whole  following  clause. 

Is  your  mother  in  the  house  ?     (prep.) 
Yes,  she  is  in.     (adv.) 

A  word  may  be  used  in  some  places  as  a  preposition 
and  in  others  as  an  adverb. 

He  looked  at  me. 

Looked  at  is  similar  in  meaning  to  observed,  and  the 
sentence  can  be  altered  to  /  was  looked  at  by  him.  Here 
at  seems  to  be  more  adverbial  than  prepositional,  me  being 
the  object  of  the  modified  verb  looked  at. 

The  preposition  as  it  appears  in  the  infinitive  has  in  some 
cases  lost  its  original  use  as  a  relation  word  and  become 
merely  an  introducing  word ;  but  in  most  cases  its  usual 
office  is  retained. 

EXAMPLES.     We  went  to  Europe  to  see  the  exposition,      (relation 

word) 
To  see  is  to  believe,     (introducing  word) 


198  RELATION    WORDS 

Exercise. 

Select  the  subordinate  relation  words  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  the  class  and  office  of  each. 

1 .  I  sat  near  her. 

2.  From  day  to  day  we  watched  her. 

3.  You  walk  like  him. 

4.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 

Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 

5.  We   will   look  well   into    the  subject  and  put   off  decision  until 

to-morrow. 

6.  During  the  holidays  we  will  trim  the  house  with  evergreens. 

7.  I  know  what  I  like,  and  I  like  what  suits  me. 

8.  Under  what  flag  did  you  serve? 

There  are  some  cases  in  which  two  prepositions  combine 
to  show  one  relation. 

EXAMPLE.     Out  of,  written  as  two  words,  which  are  as  closely  united 
in  meaning  as  in  and  to  are  in  into. 

Study  the  uses  of  copulative  participles  and  infinitives  as 
relation  words,  on  pages  164,  165. 


102.     REVIEW. 
In  parsing  "a  relation  v/ord,  follow  the  subjoined  outline. 

Coordinate  —  Coordinate  conjunction 

Rel.  pronoun 
Rel.  adjective 
Classes]  auDoramare     ^  Conj.  adverb 

Subordinate 

Subor-  I  conjunction 

dinate      Preposition 

Asserter 
Copula 


Relation 
Words 


Office 


|  Single 
I  Double 


Participle 
Infinitive 


REVIEW  199 

Exercise, 
Parse  the  relation  words  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1 .  Daisies  pied  and  violets  blue, 

And  lady  smocks  all  silver  white, 
And  cuckoo  buds  of  yellow  hue 

Do  paint  the  meadows  with  delight. 

2.  They  are  as  sick  that  surfeit  with  too  much  as  they  that   starve 

with  nothing. 

3.  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 

4.  The  ship  came  so  rapidly,  and  apparently  so  rashly,  that  the  lands- 

men of  the  party  were  alarmed. 

5.  When  the  shepherds  came  fully  to  their  senses  they  stared  at  one 

another  stupidly. 

6.  It  may  be   doubted   if  the   people    of  the   West   ever   overcome 

the  impression  made  upon  them  by  the  first  view  of  a  camel 
equipped  and  loaded  for  the  desert. 
•7.    I  take  long  walks  because  I  enjoy  the  exercise. 

8.  The   horse   and  sleigh   were    injured;    but    the    driver    escaped 

unhurt. 

9.  You  or  your  brother  may  carry  the  message. 

10.  Will  you  wait,  please,  until  I  have  answered  the  note  ? 

11.  Hail  to  the  chief,  who  in  triumph  advances. 

12.  It  is  a  poor  sport  that  is  not  worth  the  candle. 

13.  Men  of  courage  and  of  conviction  settled  New  England. 

14.  This  term  of  forty  days  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle  in  his  Natural 

History,  as  also  by  some  modern  physiologists. 

15.  It  is  asserted  that  the  dogs  keep  running  when  they  drink  at  the 

Nile,  for  fear  of  becoming  a  prey  to  the  voracity  of  the  crocodiles. 

1 6.  No  man  ever  wetted  clay  and  then  left  it,  as.  if  there  would  be 

bricks  by  chance  and  fortune. 

17.  The  materials  of  action  are  variable,  but  the  use  we  make  of  them 

should  be  constant. 

1 8.  And  if  I  laugh  at  any  mortal  thing, 
'Tis  that  I  may  not  weep. 

19.  Watchman,  tell  us  of  the  night, 
What  its  signs  of  promise  are. 

20.  I  watched  her  at  her  spinning, 
And  that  was  my  beginning 
Of  wooing  and  of  winning. 


200  RELATION    WORDS 


103.     CAUTIONS. 

I.     Conjunctions.     Do  not  use  like  for  as,  but  for  than, 
that  for  why,  without  for  unless,  or  but  what  for  but  or  £«/ 


Write  corrrectly  :  — 

1.  The  English  do  not  ride  ...     we  do. 

iuCC 

like   .     was 

2.  The  man  acts       ..  he  crazy. 

as  if       were 

3.  He  studies  for  no  higher  object     '       a  rewafd. 

4.  The  reason          I  remained  was  because  I  could  not  make  arrange- 

ments to  leave. 

5.  I  shall  not  read  Un  JSS     you  give  me  your  attention. 

without 

6.  There  is  no  one  here  .  ^  agrees  with  me. 

but  what 


7.    I  don't  know  you  are  right. 

II.     Prepositions.     Avoid  using  the  preposition  for  be- 
fore an  infinitive. 

Supply  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  I  went  down  town  —  -  —  shop. 

2.  The  desire  -  see  you  brought  me  here. 

3.  They  went  -  -  receive  him,  but  failed. 

NOTE.  —This  use  of  for  was  once  considered  good  English. 
EXAMPLE.     "  But  what  came  ye  out  for  to  see  ?  "    - 


CHAPTER   XII.  —  INDEPENDENT   WORDS. 
SYNOPSIS. 

Interjections,  and  nouns  and  pronouns  used  in  direct  address,  and 
words  or  word  groups  which  have  no  grammatical  relations  except  to 
their  own  modifiers,  are  independent. 

104.     INDEPENDENT  WORDS. 

John,  the  train  has  come. 

This  sentence  is  complete  without  the  independent  word, 
John.  Train  and  has  come  are  mutually  dependent,  and 
form  the  base  of  the  sentence ;  and  the  word  the  is  de- 
pendent as  a  subordinate  upon  its  principal,  train;  but 
John  bears  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  statement 
addressed  to  him.  John  is,  therefore,  called  independent. 

Nouns  used  in  direct  address,  unless  they  are  subjects 
in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  independent.  That 
is,  they  bear  no  grammatical  relation,  subordinate  or  coor- 
dinate, to  any  other  part  of  the  sentence. 

In  the  sentence  John,  go  home,  John  is  subject  of  the 
verb  go.  Some  grammarians,  however,  make  John  inde- 
pendent ;  the  word  you  must  then  be  supplied  as  the  sub- 
ject of  go. 

Pronouns  are  rarely  used  in  direct  address. 

EXAMPLE.     You,  sir,  I  want  you,  is  inelegant. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  used  as  exclamations  are  inde- 
pendent. 

EXAMPLES.     My  daughter  !     Oh,  my  daughter  ! 
He  !    I  tell  you  he  died  a  year  ago. 
201 


202  INDEPENDENT    WORDS 

Any  noun  that  has  no  grammatical  relation  except  to 
its  own  modifiers,  is  independent. 

EXAMPLE.     The  boy,  oh  !  where  was  he? 

Boy  here  is  modified  by  its  adjective  modifier  the,  but  is  related  in 
no  other  way  as  an  element  in  the  sentence. 

Whole  phrases  may  be  independent  if  used  in  exclama- 
tion or  otherwise,  without  any  grammatical  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

An  independent  phrase  is  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  a  comma  or  an  exclamation  point. 

EXAMPLES.     Upon  my  word  !  I  am  sorry  for  you. 
Upon  my  word  !  can  this  be  true? 

Here  word  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  upon,  but  the  entire  phrase 
is  severed  from  the  remainder  of  the  sentence.  In  the  first  example 
it  is  possible  to  say  that  upon  shows  the  relation  of  word  to  am  sorry, 
the  phrase  being  adverbial  in  meaning,  as  /  am  really  sorry,  but  no 
such  explanation  can  be. given  in  the  second  instance. 

There  is  a  small  class  of  words  expressive  of  feeling, 
and  used  only  in  exclamation,  which  are  always  inde- 
pendent. They  are  called,  from  their  occasional  use,  inter- 
jections, or  words  thrown  in. 

EXAMPLES.     Alas  !  I  am  unworthy  of  such  kindness. 
But  oh  !  what  sounds  are  these  ? 

These  words  often  have  a  faint  adverbial  significance. 
EXAMPLE.     Alas  !  he  is  here.     (He  is  unfortunately  here.) 

Indeed,  no  expression  can  be  entirely  free  from  some 
connection  in  our  thought  with  other  expressions  on  the 
same  subject,  but  it  is  only  when  the  connection  or  de- 
pendence is  clearly  expressed,  generally  by  form,  position, 


INDEPENDENT    WORDS  2O3 

punctuation,  or  relation  words,  that  we  call  it  grammatical 
relation. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  expressive  of  emotion,  and  in  construction 
independent. 


I  need  thee,  O  my  brother. 
And  oh,  what  bliss  was  there  ! 

The  interjection  O  consisting  of  the  one  letter  is  always 
a  capital.  When  spelled  o-/i,  the  capital  is  not  necessary. 
O  is  generally  used  in  direct  address  ;  ok  is  usually  em- 
ployed in  all  other  cases. 

Exercise. 

Select  the  independent  elements  in  the  following  ;  give,  if  possible, 
their  logical  relations  to  the  other  expressions  with  which  they 
occur  :  — 

1.  Hark  !  the  herald  angels  sing. 

2.  Oh  !  it  is  excellent  to  have  a  giant's  strength. 

3.  I  hold  the  world  but  as  the  world,  Gratiano. 

4.  A  second  Daniel,  a  Daniel,  Jew  ! 
Now,  infidel,  I  have  thee  on  the  hip. 

5.  Blow,  blow,  thou  winter  wind  ! 

6.  Hark,  my  soul  !  it  is  the  Lord. 

7.  Zounds  !  I  never  was  so  betramped  with  words. 

8.  By  my  faith  !  I  will  not  stir. 

9.  O  sleep,  O  gentle  sleep  ! 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  frighted  thee? 
10.    Alas  !  by  some  degree  of  woe, 

We  every  bliss  must  gain. 
n.    '•  You  are  so  good,  my  mother,"  he  said  in  a  grateful  way. 

12.  Hark,  they  whisper  !  angels  say, 
Sister  spirit,  come  away. 

13.  O  grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ! 
O  death  !  where  is  thy  sting  ! 

14.  Come,  Mary,  let  us  be  going. 


CHAPTER   XIII. —COMPLETE   ANALYSIS   OF 
SENTENCES. 

SYNOPSIS. 

An  element  is  classified  according  to  its  use ;  words  are  modified 
according  to  their  meaning  or  nature. 

An  adjective  element  modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

An  adverbial  element  modifies  an  entire  predicate  base,  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

105.     COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

So  far  the  sentences  considered  have  contained  :  — 

a.  Subject  base  of  any  class,  simple  or  compound,  modi- 
fied by  adjective  elements,   these   modifiers  being  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  elements. 

b.  Predicate   base,   simple   or   compound,    modified   by 
objective  and  adverbial  elements. 

EXAMPLE.    A  large  flock  of  sheep  (which  grazed   in  the  pasture 

~*    ~~~*  3~~  4  5 

where  the  grass  was  tall)  now  entered  the  field  with   the  speed  of 

5  ~~6~          7  8  9 

frightened  creatures  because  the  train  passed. 
9  10 

Analysis. 

i  2  __3 4 

adj.  word  el.     adj.  word  el.     subject  base.     adj.  phrase  el. 

_^ 5 6  7 

adj.  clause  (with  clause  modifier) .     adv.  word  el.     pred.  base. 

8 9 

obj.  word  el.     adv.  phrase  el.  (with  a  word  and  a  phrase  modifier). 

10 

adv.  clause. 

204 


COMPLETE   ANALYSIS  2O$ 

Exercise. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  The  wanderer  stood  upon  the  steps,  beneath  the  rich  stone  carvings 

which  set  forth  the  Crucifixion  over  the  door  of  the  church,  and 
his  quick  eye  scanned  everything  within  sight. 

2.  I  followed  him  onto  the  veranda,  where  the  long  cane  chairs  of  the 

country  were  placed,  and  stretched  myself  out  in  that  indolent, 
lazy  peace  which  is  only  to  be  enjoyed  in  tropical  countries. 

3.  The  darkness  of  night  had  closed  upon  this  disastrous  day,  and  a 

doleful  night  was  it  to  the  shipwrecked  Pavonians,  whose  ears 
were  incessantly  assailed  with  the  raging  of  the  elements,  and  the 
howling  of  the  hobgoblins  that  infested  this  perfidious  strait. 

Write  sentences  in  the  order  prescribed  below : 

I 2 

I.    adj.  word  el.     subj.  base  (compound). 

3  45 


adj.  phrase  (with  phrase  modifier),     adj.  clause,     pred.  base. 

6  7 

adv.  word  el.     adv.  phrase  (with  clause  mod.). 

8 

adv.  clause  (with  clause  mod.). 

I  20 


2.   adj.  word  el.     adj.  word  el.  (two  words),     subj.  base. 

4 5 

adj.  clause,     compound  pred.  base. 

6  7 


obj.  word  el.  (containing  several  words),     adv.  word  el. 

i 2 

3.  substan.  phrase,      assertive  phrase. 

I 2 

4.  substan.  clause  (with  clause  mod.),     asserter  and  adj.  phrase. 

L_  2  3 

5.  subj.  base  (unmodified),     pred.  verb.     obj.  clause. 

1  ? 3__ 

6.  adj.  word  el.     compound  subj.  base.     pred.  verb. 
4 

compound  adv.  phrase. 


206  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS 


7.    adj.  word  el.     subj.  base.     adj.  clause  (with  clause  mod.). 


asserter  and  compound  attribute. 

i 


8.    compound  clause  subj.  base.     pred.  phrase. 

I  2 


9.    compound  subj.  base,     ist  part  of  compound  pred.  base. 


adv.  el.     2d  part  of  compound  pred.  base. 

| 

adv.  word  el.  (with  phrase  mod.). 

6 

adverbial  clause  (with  clause  mod.). 

Nouns  or  pronouns,  however  used,  are  modified  by 
adjective  elements ;  and  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  verbs, 
however  used,  are  modified  by  adverbial  elements  so  long 
as  they  retain  their  true  nature.  This  makes  it  possible 
to  analyze  the  parts  of  a  sentence  much  more  thoroughly, 
and  to  make  sentences  much  more  varied  in  structure  than 
any  yet  given. 

Model  for  Full  Analysis. 

"  When  breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair, 
I  steal  an  hour  from  study  and  care, 
And  hie  me  away  to  the  woodland  scene, 
Where  wanders  the  stream  with  waters  of  green." 

Sentence  —  complex  declarative. 
Principal  clause  —  entire  sentence. 
Subordinate  clauses. 

a.  When  breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair. 

b.  Where  wanders  the  stream  with  waters  of  green. 
Principal  clause. 

Entire  subject  —  / — base  unmodified. 

Entire  predicate  —  All  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 


COMPLETE  ANALYSIS  2O/ 

Predicate  base  —  steal  and  hie  —  compound,  active,  tran- 
sitive. 
Modifiers  of  steal.  • 

a.  Objective  word  element  an  hour,  of  which  Jiour, 

the  base,  is  modified  by  the  adjective  word 
element  an. 

b.  Adverbial    phrase,   from    study    and   care,    the 

relation  part  being  from,  and  the  compound 
idea   part,    study   and  care,    the    bases  study 
and  care  being  connected  by  the   coordinate 
conjunction  and. 
Modifiers  of  hie. 

a.  Objective  word  element  me. 

b.  Adverbial  word  element  away. 

c.  Adverbial  phrase  element,  to  the  woodland  scene, 

Where  wanders  the  stream  witJi  waters  of 
green,  of  which  the  relation  part  is  to,  and 
the  idea  part  all  the  rest;  the  base  of  this 
idea  part  being  scene,  modified  by  the  two 
adjective  word  elements  the  and  ivoodland, 
and  by  the  adjective  clause  element  Where 
wanders  the  stream  witJi  waters  of  green. 
Modifier  of  steal  and  hie. 

The  compound  adverbial  clause  element  When 

breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair. 
Subordinate  clauses. 

a.  When  breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair. 
First  clause  —  breezes  are  soft. 

Entire  subject  —  breezes  —  base  unmodified. 
Entire  predicate  —  are  soft  when. 

Base  —  Are  soft,  (neither  active  nor  passive);    as- 

serter,  are ;    attribute,  soft. 
Second  clause  —  Skies  are  fair. 


208  COMPLETE   ANALYSIS 

Entire  subject  —  skies  —  base  unmodified. 
Entire  predicate  —  are  fair  when. 

Base  —  are  fair,  (neither  active  nor  passive)  ;    as- 

serter,  are ;    attribute,  fair. 

Subordinate  connective,  when,  is  used  also  as 
adverbial  word  element  in  both  clauses  of  the 
compound  predicate. 

b.  Where  wanders  the  stream  with  waters  of  green. 
Entire  subject —  The  stream  with  waters  of  green. 
Subject  base  —  stream,   modified  by  the   adjective 
word  element  the,  and  the  adjective  phrase  ele- 
ment with  waters  of  green,  of  which  with  is  the 
relation  part,  and  waters  of  green  the  idea  part, 
waters  being  the  base,  modified  by  the  adjective 
phrase  of  green,  in  which  of  is  the  relation  part, 
and  green  the  idea  part. 
Entire  predicate  —  wanders  where. 

Predicate  base  —  wanders,  active,  modified  by  the 

simple  adverbial  word  element  where. 
The    subordinate    connective    is    where,    used    as 
adverbial  word  element  in  its  own  clause. 

Every  element  must  be  named  according  to  its  office,  and  every  word 
is  modified  according  to  its  nature. 

Exercise. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  The  very  first  movements  of  the  great  Peter,  on  taking  the  reins  of 

government,  displayed  his  magnanimity,  though  they  occasioned 
not  a  little  marvel  and  uneasiness  among  the  people  of  the 
Manhattoes. 

2.  Him  did  Peter  the  Headstrong  cause  to  be  brought  into  his  pres- 

ence, and  eying  him  for  a  moment  from  head  to  foot,  with  a 
countenance  that  would  have  appalled  anything  else  than  a 
sounder  of  brass,  said,  "  Prithee,  and  who  art  thou  ?  " 


COMPLETE   ANALYSIS  2CK) 

3.  It  was  some  time,  if  I  recollect  right,  in  the  early  part  of  the  autumn 

of  1808  that  a  stranger  applied  for  lodgings  at  the  Independent 
Columbian  Hotel  in  Mulberry  Street,  of  which  I  am  landlord. 

4.  The  only  piece  of  finery  which  he  bore  about  him  was  a  bright  pair 

of  square  silver  shoe  buckles  ;  and  all  his  baggage  was  contained 
in  a  pair  of  saddlebags  which  he  carried  under  his  arm. 

5.  Thy  leaf  has  perished  in  the  green, 

And  while  we  breathe  beneath  the  sun, 
The  world  which  credits  what  is  done. 
Is  cold  to  all  that  might  have  been. 

6.  There  was  a  state  without  king  or  nobles  ;  there  was  a  church  with- 

out a  bishop ;  there  was  a  people  governed  by  grave  magistrates 
which  it  had  selected,  and  by  equal  laws  which  it  had  framed. 

7.  Nail  to  the  mast  her  holy  flag. 

Set  every  threadbare  sail, 
And  give  her  to  the  God  of  storms, 
The  lightning  and  the  gale  ! 

8.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  height  of  a  man  from  the  crown 

of  the  head  to  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  equal  to  the  distance 
between  the  tips  of  the  middle  fingers  of  the  two  hands  when 
extended  in  a  straight  line. 

9.  The  thorns  which  I  have  reaped  are  of  the  tree  I  planted ;  they 

have  torn  me,  and  I  bleed. 

10.  The  hunter  still  pitched  his  bower  of  skins  and  bark  beside  the 

rills  which  ran  through  the  cool  and  shady  glens,  while  here  and 
there  might  be  seen,  on  some  sunny  knoll,  a  group  of  Indian 
wigwams  whose  smoke  arose  above  the  neighboring  trees  and 
floated  in  the  transparent  atmosphere. 

11.  The  gentlemen,  in  fact,  who  figured  in  the  circles  of  the  gay  world 

in  those  ancient  times,  corresponded  in  most  particulars  with  the 
beauteous  damsels  whose  smiles  they  were  ambitious  to  deserve. 

Repeat  the  analysis  of  the  sentences  at  the  end  of  Chapter  IV,  pars- 
ing particularly  all  the  modifiers  of  modifiers.  Analyze  sentences  free 
from  difficult  idioms,  in  any  available  good  piece  of  literature. 


p.  c.  GRAM.  —  14 


PART  III.  — APPLICATIONS  OF 
GRAMMAR, 

CHAPTER   XIV.  —  PUNCTUATION   AND    CAPITALI- 
ZATION. 

106.     USE  OF  PUNCTUATION  MARKS. 

Punctuation  is  fully  treated  in  books  upon  composition 
and  rhetoric ;  but,  since  punctuation  marks  may  aid  in 
making  grammatical  relations  clear,  some  of  the  rules  for 
their  use  may  properly  be  treated  in  a  grammar. 

What  punctuation  mark  indicates  the  close  of  a  pure 
declarative  sentence  ?  Give  an  example  of  this  use  of  the 
period. 

What  other  class  of  sentence  is  followed  by  a  period  ? 

What  mark  indicates  the  close  of  a  pure  interrogative 
sentence  ?  of  any  exclamatory  sentence  ?  Give  examples. 

How  are  compound  sentences  punctuated  ?  (pp.  70,  71.) 
How  are  mixed  compound  sentences  punctuated?  (p.  21.) 
Give  examples, 

How  are  compound  elements  punctuated?  (p.  75.) 
Give  examples. 

In  the  examples  which  you  have  given,  what  marks  have 
been  used  to  indicate  the  close  of  the  sentence?  Which 
marks  have  been  used  to  indicate  the  state  of  mind  of  the 
author  ?  Which  have  been  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a 
compound  ? 

210 


PARTS   OF  A    COMPOUND  211 

What,  then,  are  three  of  the  uses  to  which  punctuation 
marks  may  be  put  ? 

Good  manners,  not  fine  clothing,  make  the  man. 

In  this  sentence,  the  commas  before  and  after  not  fine 
clothing  show  that  the  expression  which  they  inclose  is 
interposed  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

So  another  use  of  punctuation  marks  is  to  separate  unre- 
lated parts  within  the  sentence,  which  might  otherwise  be 
joined  in  the  mind.  This  use  of  the  comma  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  use  of  the  marks  which  end  sentences. 


107.    PUNCTUATION  TO  SEPARATE  THE  PARTS  OF  A 
COMPOUND. 

Commas  are  usually  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound, unless  all  the  parts  are  connected  by  conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES,     i.   Oliver  Twist  was  a  pale,  thin  child. 

2.  Who  never  felt  the  impatient  throb, 
The  longing  of  a  heart  that  pants 
And  reaches  after  distant  good  ? 

3.  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

4.  I  came  and  I  saw  and  I  conquered. 

If  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  contain  within 
themselves  commas,  semicolons  are  used  instead  of  commas 
to  separate  the  greater  parts. 

EXAMPLE.     In  some,  ambition  is  the  chief  concern ; 

For  this  they  languish  and  for  this  they  burn ; 
For  this  they  smile,  for  this  alone  they  sigh  ; 
For  this  they  love,  for  this  would  freely  die. 

If  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  express  a  contrast, 
but  is  frequently  omitted,  a  semicolon  being  used  in  its 
stead. 


212  PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALIZATION 

EXAMPLES,     i .    Cleon  hath  a  million  acres  ; 
Ne'er  a  one  have  I. 

2.  When  I  was  little,  thought  I  was  big; 
Now  Pm  a  giant,  don't  care  a  fig. 

3.  Fire  is  the  test  of  gold;   adversity  is  the  test  of 

strong  men. 


Mary  likes  candy  ;  I,  cake. 

The  verb  is  frequently  omitted,  when  well  understood,  in 
which  case  a  comma  indicates  the  omission. 


108.  PUNCTUATION  TO  SEPARATE  UNRELATED  PARTS. 

A  pure  declarative  sentence  is  followed  by  a  period. 
EXAMPLE.     All  orators  are  dumb  when  beauty  pleadeth. 

A  pure  interrogative  sentence  is  followed  by  an  interro- 
gation point. 

EXAMPLE.     Have  you  found  your  life  distasteful? 

A  pure  imperative  sentence  is  followed  by  a  period. 
EXAMPLE.     Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 

A  parenthesis,  if  very  marked,  is  separated  from  that 
within  which  it  is  placed,  by  parentheses  (  )  or  dashes 
(— ).  If  the  parenthesis  is  not  very  marked,  commas  are 
used  instead. 

EXAMPLES,     i .    The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the 

year, 
Of  wailing  winds  and  naked  woods  and  meadows 

brown  and  sear. 
2.    One  writer,  for  instance,  excels  at  a  plan. 


UNRELATED  PARTS  213 

An  independent  noun,  or  any  independent  expression 
which  is  not  an  exclamation,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  with  which  it  occurs,  by  commas. 

EXAMPLES.     John,  your  mother  wants  you. 
I  am,  sir,  his  brother. 
Child  of  mortality,  whence  comest  thou? 

An  explanatory  noun,  being  parenthetic  in  use,  is  often 
marked  off  by  commas. 

EXAMPLES.     John,  the  gardener,  cut  the  grass. 

The  blind  poet,  Milton,  wrote  u  Paradise  Lost." 

Inversions  are  frequently  indicated  by  the  use  of  the 
comma. 

EXAMPLE.     In  the  midst  of  life,  we  are  in  death. 


The  tune  which  you  play  is  pretty. 
I  like  it  when  it  is  well  played. 

A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by  a  con- 
junctive adverb  is  not  marked  off  by  commas  if  its  adjec- 
tive or  adverbial  use  is  plain  (restricting  or  limiting  the 
meaning  of  its  principal). 

That  piano,  which  my  fatJicr  purchased  for  me  when  I  first 

learned  to  play,  stands  by  the  door. 
I  sat  and  played  by  the  firelight,  when  in  came  the  children 

from  tJieir  ivalk. 

These  subordinate  clauses  are  merely  subordinate  in 
form ;  they  are  really  statements  equal  in  importance  to 
the  principal  clauses,  and  thus  not  true  adjective  and 
adverbial  clauses,  but  logically  coordinate  with  their  prin- 
cipals. Therefore  they  are  separated  from  their  principal 
clauses  by  commas. 


214  PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALIZATION 

Children,  be  quiet. 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 

There  are  two  exceptional  uses  of  the  comma.  The 
subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  separated  from  its 
predicate  by  a  comma ;  and  the  comma  also  separates 
subject  and  predicate  when  the  subject  clause  ends  with  a 
verb,  or  when  the  subject  is  very  long. 

109.     PUNCTUATION   TO  EXPRESS   EMOTION. 

The  exclamation  point  is  the  chief  mark  used  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  emotion. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  —  whether  declarative,  interrog- 
ative, or  imperative  —  is  followed  by  an  exclamation  point. 

EXAMPLE.     What  rage  for  fame  attends  both  great  and  small ! 

An  interjection,  or  interjectional  expression,  if  used  alone, 
or  if  very  emphatic,  is  followed  by  an  exclamation  point. 

EXAMPLES,     i .    Hail,  Columbia  !  happy  land  ! 

Hail,  ye  heroes  !  heaven-born  band  ! 
2.   An  angel!  or  if  not, 
An  earthly  paragon ! 

An  interjectional  expression  which  is  part  of  an  exclama- 
tory sentence  is  usually  followed  by  a  comma,  because  the 
exclamation  point  follows  the  entire  sentence. 

EXAMPLES.     O  Lady,  he  is  dead  and  gone  ! 

Hush,  my  dear,  lie  still  and  slumber ! 

110.    REVIEW. 

Exercise. 
Punctuate  the  following :  — 

1 .  His  looks  betoken  ease  plenty  and  prosperity 

2.  In  a  similar  manner  and  with  the  example  of  my  worthy  ancestor 

full  before   my   eyes   have   I   proceeded   in   writing  this   most 
authentic  history 


REVIEW  21$ 

3.  But  ours  alone  can  ne'er  prevail 

To  reach  the  distant  coast 
The  breath  of  heaven  must  swell  the  sail 
Or  all  the  toil  is  lost 

4.  Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep 

5.  Ah  youth  forever  dear  forever  kind 

6.  Teach  me  to  feel  another's  woe 

To  hide  the  fault  I  see 
That  mercy  I  to  others  show 
That  mercy  show  to  me 

7.  The  tall  the  wise  the  reverend  head 

Must  lie  as  low  as  ours 

8.  But  children  you  should  never  let 

Such  angry  passions  rise 
Your  little  hands  were  never  made 
To  tear  each  other's  eyes 

9.  Odds  life  must  one  swear  to  the  truth  of  a  song 

10.  We  the  people  of  the  United  States  do  ordain  and  establish  this 

Constitution 

1 1 .  Alas  how  light  a  cause  may  move 
Dissension  between  hearts  that  love 

12.  When  tillage  begins  other  arts  follow 

13.  Justice  sir  is  the  great  interest  of  man  on  earth 

14.  Venerable  men  you  have  come  down  to  us  from  a  former  genera- 

tion 

15.  Sink  or  swim  live  or  die  survive  or  perish  I  give  my  hand  and  heart 

to  this  vote 

1 6.  And  lo  Ben  Adhem's  name  led  all  the  rest 

17.  But  soft  methinks  I  scent  the  morning  air 

1 8.  What  do  you  read  my  lord 

19.  I  will  buy  with  you  sell  with  you  walk  with  you  and  so  following 

but  I  will  not  eat  with  you  drink  with  you  nor  pray  with  you 

20.  A  needy  hollow-eyed  sharp-looking  wretch 

21.  0  Romeo  Romeo  wherefore  art  thou  Romeo 

22.  For  he  who  fights  and  runs  away 
May  live  to  fight  another  day 
But  he  who  is  in  battle  slain 
Can  never  rise  and  fight  again 


2l6  PUNCTUATION  AND    CAPITALIZATION 

23.  A  man's  heart  deviseth  his  way  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps 

24.  How  would  you  be  if  he  which  is  the  top  of  judgment  should  but 

judge  you  as  you  are 

The  use  of  punctuation  marks  to  separate  unrelated 
parts  is  the  use  most  apparent  to  those  who  read,  for  it  aids 
much  in  enabling  the  reader  properly  to  apprehend  what 
he  reads.  This  fact  has  led  many  writers  to  use  unneces- 
sary punctuation  marks  as  signs  by  means  of  which  those 
who  read  aloud  may  know  where  to  pause,  so  that  it  is 
possible,  by  carefully  observing  these  signs,  to  read  prop- 
erly without  understanding  the  contents  of  what  is  read. 
Some  school  readers  even  formulate  such  rules  as  "  Stop 
at  a  comma  long  enough  to  count  one ;  "  "  Drop  the  voice 
at  a  period  ;  "  and  the  like. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  proper  office  of  punctuation 
is  to  make  plain  the  relations  between  the  parts  of  the  composition. 

111.     CAPITALS. 

Capitals  are  employed  usually  to  indicate  the  importance 
of  the  words  of  which  they  are  the  initial  letters. 

The  first  word  of  a  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Proper  nouns  and  proper  adjectives  should  begin  with 
capitals. 

The  words  7  and  O  should  be  capitals. 

The  first  word  of  each  line  of  poetry  should  begin  with 
a  capital. 

The  name  of  the  Deity,  or  any  pronoun  referring  to  the 
Deity,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

EXAMPLE.     The  Almighty  breathed  His  spirit  into  man* 

Personified  nouns  are  generally  begun  with  capitals. 
Give  examples  of  each  of  these  uses  of  capitals. 


CHAPTER    XV.— ARRANGEMENT    OF   WORDS    IN    A 
SENTENCE. 

112.    INTRODUCTION. 

The  horse  ran  rapidly.  The  horse  rapidly  ran  through 
the  meadow.  Rapidly  the  horse  ran  through  the 
meadow.  The  horse  ran  through  the  meadow  rapidly. 

No  matter  how  far  rapidly  is  placed  from  ran  it  cannot, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  modify  any  other  word. 

Under  the  spreading  chestnut  tree, 
The  village  smithy  stands. 

The  usual  arrangement  of  these  elements  would  be,  The 
village  smithy  stands  under  the  spreading  chestnut  tree. 
By  directing  the  thought  first  to  the  spreading  tree,  a  more 
pleasing  picture  is  formed. 

The  variations  from  the  usual  arrangement  which  occur 
in  sentences  are  for  the  purpose  either  of  adding  to  beauty 
of  form,  as  in  poetry,  or  of  emphasizing  some  part  of  the 
thought. 

EXAMPLE.     Old  thou  mayst  be,  feeble  thou  mayst  be  ;  but  rich  it  is 
well  known  thou  art. 

Here,  in  order  to  compare  emphatically  the  adjectives 
old,  feeble,  and  rich,  they  are  removed  from  their  usual 
positions  as  attributes  after  their  asserters. 

To  learn  when  and  how  to  make  changes  in  the  ordinary 
arrangement  of  elements  one  should  study  the  writings  of 
good  authors.  A  proper  use  of  such  knowledge  is,  in  part,- 

217 


218         ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  IN  A   SENTENCE 

what  is  called  style  in  composition.  The  careless  and 
unnecessary  use  of  inversions  for  the  sake  of  peculiarity 
is  an  affectation  which  should  be  avoided. 

113.     SUBJECT   AND   ADJECTIVE  ELEMENTS. 

The  subject  base  of  a  declarative  sentence  is  usually 
placed  before  the  predicate  base,  though  not  necessarily 
next  to  it. 

EXAMPLES.     I  went. 

The  group  of  timid  creatures,  frightened  and  cowed, 
crept  away. 

If  the  predicate  base  in  an  interrogative  sentence  is  one 
word,  the  subject  is  often  placed  after  it.  If  the  predicate 
base  is  a  group  of  words,  the  subject  comes  after  the  first 
word  of  the  predicate  base. 

EXAMPLES.     Were  you  there  ? 

Will  you  stay  there  ? 

The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  often  omitted, 
in  which  case  you  is  understood  to  be  the  subject ;  but,  if 
given,  the  subject  is  placed  either  before  or  after  the 
predicate. 

EXAMPLES.     Children,  come  in. 
Come  in,  children. 

A,  an,  and  the  usually  precede  the  principal,  or  the 
principal  and  all  other  modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.     The  fine  weather  lasts  longer  this  year  than  usual. 

But  when  a  noun  is  also  modified  by  sucJi  or  many,  the 
position  of  a  or  an  is  next  after  this  modifier. 
EXAMPLES.     Such  a  mistake  is  not  often  made. 

Such  a  fine  fellow  as  that  should  not  lack  gold. 
Many  a  bright-faced  boy  have  I  seen  enter  the  same 
course. 


SUBJECT  AND  ADJECTIVE  ELEMENTS  2IQ 

And  an  adjective  modified  by  so  may  precede  a  or  an. 
EXAMPLE.     So  good  a  man  needs  no  defense. 

A  short  adjective  word  modifier  is  usually  placed  before 
the  noun  it  modifies.  Explanatory  terms  and  very  long 
adjective  word  modifiers  follow  their  principals. 

EXAMPLES.     The  good  old  man  arose. 

My  father,  old  and  venerable,  greeted  me. 

She,  lovely  in  her  innocence,  confronted  him  calmly. 

Mary,  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  chose  the  better  part. 

They  set  him  free  without  his  ransom  paid. 

It  is  not  easy  to  recognize  paid  as  an  adjective  element, 
because  it  follows  its  principal. 

An  attribute  usually  follows  its  asserter. 
EXAMPLE.     He  was  every  inch  a  man. 

This  order  is  frequently  changed  by  inversions  for  the 
.sake  of  emphasis  or  rhythm. 

EXAMPLE.     A  man  he  was,  to  all  his  country  dear. 

Of  two  adjective  modifiers,  one  a  possessive  and  the 
other  an  adjective,  the  possessive  is  placed  first  to  avoid 
confusion. 

EXAMPLE.     The  prisoner's  young  wife  differs  in  meaning  from  the 
young  prisoners  wife. 

Adjective  phrases  and  clauses  follow  their  principals. 

EXAMPLES.     The  ticking  of  the  clock  disturbed  me. 

A  reparation  which  is  so  grudgingly  paid  avails  nothing. 

One  should  avoid  placing  adjective  modifiers  so  far  away 
from  their  principals  as  to  render  the  meaning  doubtful. 


220        ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  IN  A  SENTENCE 

Exercise. 

Place  the  adjective  modifiers  properly  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1 .  The  mother  came  with  her  baby,  pretty  as  a  picture. 

2.  The  mourners  came  slowly  toward  us,  followed  by  their  little  dog, 

weeping  bitterly. 

3.  A  building  with  great  chimneys,  seven  stories  high,  stood  near  the 

avenue. 

4.  Send  me  a  good  woman  to  take  care  of  my  baby,  about  forty  years 

old. 

5.  The  miniature  hung  by  a  chain  round  her  neck,  which  was  painted 

by  Benjamin  West. 


114.     ADVERBIAL  AND   PREDICATE  ELEMENTS. 

Those  words  which  fulfill  two  offices  in  a  sentence,  such 
as  conjunctive  adverbs  and  relative  pronouns,  must  be 
placed  properly  for  one  service  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 
These  words  are  so  placed  as  to  perform  their  office  of 
relation  words,  and  thus  the  subordinate  clause  is  fre- 
quently inverted.  The  relative  pronoun,  however,  while 
filling  the  position  demanded  by  its  conjunctive  office 
(except  that  it  may  be  preceded  by  a  preposition),  assumes 
the  form  demanded  by  its  pronominal  use. 

EXAMPLES.     The  gentleman  whom  I  have  mentioned  is  not  here. 
The  candidate  of  whom  I  spoke  was  not  elected. 

An  interrogative  word  is  generally  placed  first  in  the 
sentence  or  clause  in  which  it  also  serves  as  an  element, 
whatever  its  grammatical  relation. 

EXAMPLES.  Why  do  you  come  ? 
What  do  you  wish  ? 
Which  way  will  you  go  ? 

The  predicate  base   usually   follows    the    subject   of   a 


ADVERBIAL   AND   PREDICATE   ELEMENTS  221 

declarative  sentence,  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  an 
imperative  sentence,  and  -precedes  or  incloses  the  subject 
of  an  interrogative  sentence. 

EXAMPLES.     I  desire  it. 

Come  with  us. 


Where  is  it  ? 
What  will  you  do  ? 

An  adverbial  word  element  usually  precedes  its  adjective 
or  adverbial  principal,  but  is  placed  either  before  or  after 
its  verbal  principal. 

EXAMPLES.     The  very  funny  story  moved  us  to  laughter. 

A  cheerfully  blazing  fire  crackled  merrily  on  the  hearth. 

If  the  predicate  base  is  composed  of  a  principal  verb 
and  one  or  more  auxiliaries,  the  adverb  often  occurs  be- 
tween the  principal  verb  and  the  asserter. 

EXAMPLES.     I  have  often  seen  him. 
I  will  never  do  it. 
When  the  deed  shall  have  been  so  nobly  done. 

Adverbial  phrases  and  clauses  usually  follow  their 
principals. 

EXAMPLES.  She  was  beautiful  in  appearance. 
He  walked  forward  with  dignity. 
I  rode  while  the  fine  weather  lasted. 

But  displacements  of  adverbial  elements  are  frequently 
used  to  create  emphasis  and  variety  of  style. 

EXAMPLES,     i .    Under  the  greenwood  tree, 
Who  loves  to  lie  with  me  ? 
2.   Where  the  bee  sucks,  there  suck  I. 


222         ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  IN  A  SENTENCE 


115.    OTHER  ELEMENTS   AND   WORDS. 

An  objective  element,  whatever  its  class,  usually  follows 
the  transitive  verb. 

EXAMPLES.     I  wrote  a  letter. 


I  desire  to  see  you. 

I  thought  that  you  were  here. 

An  indirect  object  usually  precedes  the  direct  object, 
both  being  placed  after  the  verb. 

EXAMPLES.     Lend  me  your  ears. 

Hand  Charles  a  knife. 

A  transitive  verb  sometimes  has  the  power  of  showing 
the  relation  between  its  object  and  a  modifier.  Such  an 
adjective  modifier  follows  its  principal. 

EXAMPLES.     They  called  him  lazy. 

The  people  made  Caesar  emperor. 

The  natural  position  for  a  relation  word  is  between  the 
related  or  connected  words  or  word  groups.  If  displaced 
from  this  position,  a  subordinate  relation  word  usually 
remains  with  the  subordinate  element. 

EXAMPLES.     When  the  gentle  Spring  comes,  I,  Old  Winter,  hie 

away. 
In  my  opinion,  nothing  said  is  safest. 

A  relative  pronoun  used  within  its  clause  as  object  of  a 
preposition  is  frequently  transposed  to  perform  its  conjunc- 
tive office,  leaving  the  preposition  in  the  position  proper 
for  a  prepositional  phrase. 

EXAMPLE.     What  he  was  thinking  of,  I  cannot  tell. 


INVERSIONS  223 

But  it  is  more  elegant  to  place  the  preposition  before  its 
object. 

That  as  a  relative  pronoun,  object  of  a  preposition,  can 
be  used  only  when  separated  from  the  preposition.  If 
the  clause  is  reconstructed,  which  or  whom  must  be  used. 

EXAMPLE.     The  people  that  I  live  with. 
The  people  with  whom  I  live. 

116.     INVERSIONS. 

Certain  words  usually  demand  inversions  in  the  sen- 
tences in  which  they  occur. 

After  else  used  as  a  conjunction,  the  second  clause  is 
frequently  inverted. 

EXAMPLE.     I  failed  to  see  her,  else  would  I  have  spoken. 

Nor  can  be  used  without  neither  in  a  sentence,  provided 
the  following  clause  is  inverted. 

EXAMPLE.     I  do  not  know  him  nor  do  I  wish  to. 

On  the  contrary,  the  omission  of  if  inverts  the  clause. 
EXAMPLE.     Hadst  thou  stayed  I  must  have  fled. 

In  some  cases,  the  inversion  creates  a  demand  for  the 
addition  of  a  word. 

EXAMPLE.    Where  he  is,  there  am  I. 

This  means  /  am  there  where  he  is,  the  clause  where  he  is  being 
explanatory  of  there,  and  hence  an  adverbial  clause.  In  its  ordinary 
form  the  sentence  would  read,  /  am  where  he  is,  the  word  there  being 
superfluous,  and  needed  only  in  the  inverted  sentence. 

EXAMPLE.     Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 
This  is  an  inversion  of  I  will  trust  him  though  he  slay  me.     Yet  is 
introduced  because  of  the  inversion. 


224        ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  IN  A   SENTENCE 

EXAMPLE.     What  I  seek,  I  seek  it  earnestly. 

In  the  natural  order  this  would  appear  —  /  seek  'what  I  seek  earnestly ; 
it  being  introduced  because  of  the  inversion. 

EXAMPLE.  For  the  same  reason,  whoso  is  introduced  in  the  sentence 
Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood  be  shed.  The 
sentence  can  be  better  analyzed,  His  blood,  who  sheddeth  man's  blood, 
shall  be  shed  by  man. 


117.     USE  OF  EXPLETIVES. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  case  of  inversion  is  that  which 
necessitates  the  use  of  one  of  the  introductory  expletives, 

there  or  it. 

EXAMPLES.     There  is  no  one  here. 

It  is  strange  that  he  does  not  come. 

The  awkwardness  of  using  a  very  long  subject  before 
a  short  predicate  is  avoided  by  the*  employment  of  there 
to  introduce  the  sentence ;  the  subject  being  transposed 
to  follow  the  verb. 

EXAMPLE.     There  is  many  a  slip 

'Twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip. 

There  may  be  called  an  adverb,  but  has  lost  its  adver- 
bial significance,  and  has  become  a  mere  expletive. 

Similarly,  //  placed  as  subject  of  a  short  predicate,  and 
followed  by  an  explanatory  phrase  or  clause,  is  really  an 
expletive,  the  explanatory  phrase  or  clause  being  the  real 
subject ;  but  because  of  its  usual  pronominal  use  it  can 
be  called  the  subject,  although  there  can  not. 

EXAMPLES.     It  is  true  that  I  am  here. 

It  surprised  me  to  find  so  many  of  them  illtreated. 
Is  it  not  true  that  you  heard  me? 
It  moved  the  people  to  see  so  sad  a  disaster. 
It  seems  strange  that  one  so  useful  should  die. 


REVIEW  22$ 

118.     REVIEW. 

Exercise. 
Explain  the  reasons  for  the  arrangements  of  words  in  the  following  :  — 

1 .  In  every  deed  of  mischief  he  had  a  heart  to  resolve,  a  head  to  con- 

trive, and  a  hand  to  execute. 

2.  Could  we  forbear  dispute  and  practice  love. 
We  should  agree  as  angels  do  above. 

3.  Of  Law  there  can  be  no  less  acknowledged  than  that  her  seat  is  in 

the  bosom  of  God. 

4.  Let  pride  go  afore,  shame  will  follow  after. 

5.  The  world's  a  stage  on  which  all  parts  are  played. 

6.  We  can  say  nothing  but  what  hath  been  said. 

7.  Why  doth  one  man's  yawning  make  another  yawn? 

8.  Who  cannot  give  good  counsel  ?    Tis  cheap,  it  costs  them  nothing. 

9.  Health  is  the  second  blessing  that  we  mortals  are  capable  of,— 

a  blessing  that  money  cannot  buy. 

10.  The  proverb  saith  that  many  a  small  maketh  a  great. 

11.  Diogenes  struck  the  father  when  the  son  swore. 

12.  Be  wisely  worldly,  be  not  worldly  wise. 

13.  The  man  that  once  did  sell  the  lion's  skin 

While  the  beast  lived,  was  killed  with  hunting  him. 

14.  Sound  of  vernal  showers 

On  the  twinkling  grass, 
Rain-awakened  flowers, 

All  that  ever  was 
Joyous,  and  clear,  and  fresh,  thy  music  doth  surpass. 

15.  In  every  man's  memory,  with  the  hours  when  life  culminated  are 

usually  associated  certain  books  which  met  his  views. 

p.  c.  GRAM.  —  15 


CHAPTER    XVI.  —  AGREEMENT    AND    GOVERNMENT. 
119.     AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

The  English  language,  having  few  inflectional  forms, 
has  few  cases  of  agreement  or  government,  but  these  cases 
should  be  carefully  studied,  since  their  observance  distin- 
guishes an  educated  from  an  uneducated  person. 


An  explanatory  noun  is  always  of  the  ordinary  form, 
unless  it  explains  a  noun  possessive  in  meaning,  in  which 
case  the  principal  often  retains  the  ordinary  form,  while 
the  explanatory  noun  assumes  the  possessive  ending. 

EXAMPLE.     I  was  at  Smith  the  bookseller's  store. 

A  compound  adjective  element  consisting  of  a  series  of 
possessive  nouns  each  modifying  their  principal,  requires 
the  possessive  form  of  that  noun  only  which  stands  nearest 
the  principal. 

EXAMPLE.     Fleming  and  Tibbin's  Dictionary. 

If  the  possessives  modify  their  principal  singly,  each 
assumes  the  possessive  form. 

EXAMPLE.     Webster's  and  Worcester's  dictionaries. 

Neither  an  explanatory  noun  nor  an  attributive  noun 
needs  to  agree  with  its  principal  in  number. 

226 


NOUNS— PRONOUNS  22J 

EXAMPLES.     We  are  your  surety. 

The  foe,  horse  and  foot,  retired  in  confusion. 

Stones   and   earthworks,  a  solid  rampart,  were   piled 

before  us. 

The  trades  union,  masters  and  men,  confronted  us. 
The  price  is  fifty  cents. 

120.     PRONOUNS. 

The  person,  number,  and  gender  of  a  pronoun  depend 
on  the  idea  for  which  it  stands ;  its  case  depends  on  the 
use  to  which  it  is  put. 

EXAMPLES.     The  men  used  their  tools  well ;  I  saw  them. 

My  mother  plied  her  needle ;  she  is  industrious. 

A  pronoun  standing  for  several  antecedents  of  different 
persons  or  genders  is  of  the  first  person  in  preference  to 
the  second  or  third,  and  of  the  second  person  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  third ;  and  of  the  masculine  gender  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  feminine. 

EXAMPLES.    You  and  John  may  take  your  time,  but  Henry  and  I 

will  take  ours. 
Each  boy  and  girl  may  take  his  place. 

A  pronoun  representing  a  collective  noun  is  neuter  sin- 
gular if  the  collection  is  taken  as  a  unit,  but  is  plural  if  the 
collected  objects  are  considered  separately. 

EXAMPLES.     The  crowd  increased  its  bulk  constantly. 
The  crowd  went  to  their  homes. 

A  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  (except  infini- 
tives) is  nominative  in  form. 
EXAMPLES.    £  am  here. 

He  knows  it. 

We  were  insulted. 


228  AGREEMENT  AND    GOVERNMENT 

A  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  an  infinitive  clause 
(pp.  247-249)  is  objective  in  form. 
EXAMPLES.     They  wished  me  to  go. 

I  asked  him  to  accompany  me. 

A  pronoun  used  as  subject  of  a  participial  clause 
(pp.  247—249)  is  usually  possessive  in  form. 

EXAMPLES.     I  was  glad  to  know  of  your  coming  to  town. 

My  reason   for  visiting  her  was  her  sending  me  an 
invitation. 

But  a  pronoun  used  as  subject  of  an  adverbial  participial 
clause,  not  introduced  by  a  preposition,  is  nominative  in 
form. 

EXAMPLE.     He  being  late,  we  waited  dinner. 

A  pronoun  used  as  direct  or  indirect  object  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  is  objective  in  form. 
EXAMPLES.     They  injured  me. 

The  fire  burned  him. 

I  gave  him  a  letter. 

A  pronoun  used  as  the  idea  word  in  any  prepositional 
phrase  is  objective  in  form. 

EXAMPLES.     A  search  for  him  was  commenced. 
I  read  to  her  an  hour. 

A  pronoun  used  as  an  attribute  is  of  such  form  as  it 
would  assume  in  the  place  of  its  principal,  unless  that 
principal  is  possessive. 

EXAMPLES.     It  was  I. 

I  took  it  to  be  him. 

If  tlie  principal  is  possessive,  which  occurs  only  in  the 
participial  clause,  the  pronoun  is  nominative  in  form. 
EXAMPLE.     I  was  afraid  of  its  being  he. 


ADJECTIVES—  VERBS  22Q 

A  relative  pronoun  used  in  two  constructions  assumes 
the  case  form  demanded  by  its  use  in  the  subordinate 
clause. 

EXAMPLES.     I  asked  whoever  desired  to  come. 
Whomever  I  invited,  invited  me. 


121.    ADJECTIVES. 

Only  two  adjectives,  this  and  that,  change  their  forms  to 
indicate  number,  but  these  should  agree  with  their  princi- 
pals in  number. 

EXAMPLES.     This  kind  of  berry  grows  here. 

These  kinds  of  berries  grow  here. 

If  a  noun  is  preceded  by  two  adjectives,  the  repetition  of 
a,  an,  or  the  indicates  that  there  are  two  subjects. 

EXAMPLES.     A  black  and  a  white  cat  sat  in  the  window. 

The  old  and  the  handsome  horse  draw  the  carriage. 

122.    VERBS. 

No  matter  how  many  rules  may  be  found  by  gramma- 
rians to  show  how  the  form  of  one  word  is  governed  by  the 
forms  of  other  related  words,  the  real  meaning  will  still, 
in  our  language,  be  the  chief  consideration  deciding  such 
grammatical  agreements. 

EXAMPLES.  We  say,  What  news  is  there,  though  news  is  plural  in 
form ;  and  we  say,  The  enemy  were  routed,  though 
enemy  is  singular  in  form. 

But  custom  is  not  uniform  in  such  matters.  It  is  correct 
to  say  the  scissors  are  here,  but  the  news  is  good. 

Who  is  followed  by  the  form  which  agrees  with   the 


23O  AGREEMENT  AND    GOVERNMENT 

antecedent  of  who  ;  that  is,  the  verb  form  is  governed  by 
the  meaning  of  its  subject. 

EXAMPLES.    -I,  who  am  your  friend,  thus  advise  you. 
He,  who  is  your  friend,  thus  advises  you. 

A  similar  rule  applies  to  other  pronouns;  for  instance, 
^vhat  may  require  either  a  singular  or  a  plural  verb. 
EXAMPLES.     We  used  what  is  known  as  subterfuge. 

We  were  pursued  by  what  are  called  attentions. 

If  a  verb  has  a  compound  subject,  it  should  be  of  the 
plural  form  if  it  refers  to  the  parts  of  the  subject  taken 
jointly ;  but  if  it  refers  to  them  taken  separately,  its  form 
is  usually  governed  by  the  part  standing  next  to  it. 

EXAMPLES.     You  and  I  are  going. 
You  or  I  am  going. 

If,  however,  one  of  these  single  parts  is  emphatically 
denied,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  other. 

EXAMPLES.     Not  riches,  but  honor,  makes  the  man. 
Riches,  not  honor,  were  what  he  sought. 

A  collective  noun  may  require  either  the  singular  or 
the  plural  form  of  the  verb,  according  to  the  thought  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker. 

EXAMPLES.     The  whole  army  are  throwing  away  their  blankets. 
The  army  is  now  in  the  enemy's  country. 

In  a  compound  subject  such  as  usually  demands  a  plural 
verb,  the  parts  succeeding  the  first  may  be  regarded  as 
afterthoughts  or  parenthetic  expressions,  and  thus  a  singu- 
lar verb  be  allowable. 

EXAMPLES.     Henry,  and  Kate  and  Mary  too,  loves  candy. 
A  heavenly  race  demands  thy  zeal, 
And  an  immortal  crown. 


VERBS  231 

This  is  often  the  case  if  the  sentence  is  introduced  by 
there  or  by  an  attribute,  the  verb  then  coming  before  the 
compound. 

EXAMPLE.     Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the  glory. 

Emphasis  may  be  given  to  one  of  several  persons  or 
things  by  the  employment  of  the  prepositional  phrase  and 
of  the  singular  verb. 

EXAMPLE.     Mary  and  her  husband  are  coming. 
Mary,  with  her  husband,  is  coming. 

It  is  the  custom  to  use  the  singular  form  of  the  verb 
with  compound  subjects  that  are  composed  of  phrases  or 
clauses. 

EXAMPLES.     To  know  her  and  to  love  her  is  joy  to  me. 

That  the  train  is  late  and  we  are   thus  delayed   is 
annoying. 

Either,  neither,  many  a,  such  a,  each,  and  every,  used  as 
adjective  modifiers,  indicate  that  the  objects  represented 
by  the  nouns  which  they  modify  are  considered  one  at 
a  time ;  hence  the  agreeing  verb  and  pronoun  rriust  be  of 
the  singular  form. 

EXAMPLES.     Each  man  does  his  duty. 

Every  good  pupil  is  punctual. 

The  omission  of  the  usual  s  in  the  third  person  singular 
of  need,  as  in  the  sentence,  To  disobey  need  not  be  to  suffer, 
is  too  common  to  be  called  a  license.  It  is  really  like  the 
similar  omission  in  the  case  of  the  auxiliaries  will,  can, 
must,  may,  etc. 

The  tense  forms  of  auxiliaries  in  subordinate  clauses  and 
infinitives  should  bear  proper  relation  to  the  tense  forms 
of  the  principal  predicates. 


232  AGREEMENT  AND    GOVERNMENT 

EXAMPLES.     I  expected  to  go. 

If  you  will  come  I  may  join  you. 

I  should  be  gratified  if  you  would  play. 

I  shall  be  pleased  if  you  will  play. 

Exercise. 

Explain  the  forms  of  the  verbs  used  in  the  following :  — 

1 .  And  though  he  promise  to  his  loss, 
He  makes  his  promise  good. 

2.  When  a  building  is  about  to  fall,  all  the  mice  desert  it. 

3.  There  are  vicissitudes  in  all  things. 

4.  Others  abide  our  question.     Thou  art  free. 
We  ask  and  ask.     Thou  smilest  and  art  still. 

5.  Because  right  is  right,  to  follow  right 
Were  wisdom. 

6.  Ill  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey, 
Where  wealth  accumulates,  and  men  decay. 

7.  You  and  I  were  long  friends ;  you  are  now  my  enemy,  and  I  am 

yours. 

8.  God  helps  them  that  help  themselves. 

9.  For  oft,  when  on  my  couch  I  Jie, 

In  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood, 
They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 

Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude ; 
Arid  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills, 

And  dances  with  the  daffodils. 

10.  Talk  to  the  point,  and  stop  when  you  have  reached  it. 

11.  Day  unto   day  uttereth    speech;   and   night  unto   night  showeth 

knowledge. 

12.  One  would  put  language  on  the  same  level  with  the  various  arts 

and  inventions  with  which  man  has  gradually  adorned  and 
enriched  his  life. 

13.  It  might.  I  think,  be  sufficient  to  object  to  this  explanation  that 

language  would  then  be  an  accident,  and,  this  being  the  case, 
that  we  should  somewhere  encounter  tribes  so  low  as  not  to  pos- 
sess it;  even  as  there  is  no  human  art  or  invention,  though  it  be 
as  simple  and  obvious  as  the  preparing  of  food  by  fire,  but  there 
are  those  who  have  fallen  below  its  exercise- 


PART  IV. -r SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. 

CHAPTER  XVII.  —  INFINITIVES   AND  PARTICIPLES. 

123.     THE   INFINITIVE  PHRASE. 

The   principal  phrases  so  far  considered   are   preposi- 
tional phrases  and  assertive  phrases. 

An  assertive  phrase  is  a  predicate  consisting  of  a  rela- 
tion word  (or  word  group)  and  an  idea  part.     The  relation 
part  asserts  the  relation  of  the  complement  to  the  subject. 
EXAMPLES.     I  am  ilL 

He  is  a  good  teacher. 
The  fields  look  green. 

What  is  a  prepositional  phrase  ?    What  is  the  difference 
between  the  relation  parts  of  these  two  kinds  of  phrases  ? 
Prepositional  phrases  are  of  two  kinds :  — 

a.  Any  preposition  serving  as  relation  word  in  a  phrase 
may  be  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  idea  word. 

EXAMPLES.     Of  candy.  In  the  room. 

To  the  house.  From  me. 

b.  The    preposition    to   serving    as    relation  word  in   a 
phrase  may  be  followed  by  a  verb  used  as  idea  word. 

EXAMPLES.     To  love.    To  hate.    To  see.    To  inspect. 

Mary  went  home. 
Mary  slept  at  home. 

Here  the  action  or  doing  is  restricted  to  one  person,   / 
Mary,  and  to  the  past  time. 

233 


234  INFINITIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES 

The  ordinary  predicate  verb  is  restricted  in  meaning  by 
the  particular  subject  given  it,  and  also  to  the  time  indi- 
cated by  its  form.  The  verbs  which  are  thus  limited  are 
called,  like  all  limited  things,  finite. 

The  simple  form  of  the  verb  found  in  the  prepositional 
phrase  with  to  usually  represents  simply  the  action,  and 
is  not  tied  down  or  limited  to  any  person  or  time ;  it  is  not 
finite,  and  hence  is  called  the  infinitive. 

To  see  is  to  believe.  I  like  to  study. 

Seeing  is  believing.  I  like  studying. 

This  unlimited  nature,  which  is  claimed  for  the  infinitive, 
is  clearly  true  of  it  only-  when  it  is  used  as  the  subject  base, 
object,  or  attribute,  and  is  equally  true  of  the  present  parti- 
ciple when  so  used. 

The  name  infinitive,  however,  is  usually  given  only  to 
the  verb  as  used  in  the  phrase  beginning  with  to. 

The  infinitive  is  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  generally  used  as  the 
idea  word  of  a  phrase  whose  relation  word  or  introductory  word  is  to. 

EXAMPLE.     To  do  good  is  wise. 

124.     SIGN  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  preposition  to,  being  the  only  preposition  used  with 
the  infinitive,  has  come  to  be  considered  as  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  and  even  as  a  part  of  the  infinitive,  so  that,  in- 
stead of  speaking  of  the  " infinitive  phrase"  to  run,  we 
sometimes  say  merely  the  " infinitive"  to  run. 

Generally  the  infinitive  is  introduced  by  to,  but  the  to  is 
sometimes  omitted. 

EXAMPLES.     I  asked  him  to  run. 
I  saw  him  run. 
She  told  him  to  go. 
The  aunt  makes  the  child  obey. 


NATURE    OF   THE   INFINITIVE  235 

I  went  to  the  well  to  get  some  water. 
He  reads  to  while  away  the  time. 

In  the  case  of  an  adverbial  infinitive  it  is  usually  easy  to 
see  that  the  verb  is  the  base  of  the  idea  part  of  the  phrase, 
and  that  the  to  is  a  relation  word  really  meaning  in  order  to. 

But  in  the  substantive,  adjective,  and  objective  uses,  and 
sometimes  even  in  the  adverbial  use,  the  preposition  seems 
to  be  of  no  service  to  show  relation,  and  to  have  become 
merely  the  infinitive  sign,  so  that  the  phrase  cannot  be 
separated,  but  must  be  regarded  as  a  whole. 

EXAMPLES.     To  sign  such  a  paper  required  nerve. 
Our  desire  to  see  him  was  not  fulfilled. 
I  wanted  to  see  you. 

The  infinitive  (with  the  sign  omitted)  may  be  combined 
with  one  of  the  pure  auxiliaries  to  form  a  predicate  base. 

EXAMPLES.     I  will  (to)  run. 

They  can  (to)  drive  the  horses. 

Mary  may  (to)  lead  the  way. 

I  must  (to)  study  in  order  to  learn. 

Study  copulative  infinitive  phrases  on  pp.  164-166. 

125.     NATURE  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

The  infinitive,  no  matter  how  used,  may  be  modified 
according  to  its  verbal  nature,  by  adverbial  and  objective 
modifiers. 

EXAMPLE.  The  capacity  to  do  great  deeds  when  the  occasion 
arises,  comes  only  to  'those  who  have  been  watchful 
to  fulfill  faithfully  the  small  daily  duties  of  life. 

To  do,  though  adjective  in  use,  is  modified  by  the  object  great  deeds, 
and  by  the  adverbial  clause  when  the  occasion  arises ;  and  the  infinitive 
to  fulfill,  which  is  adverbial  in  use,  is  modified  by  the  adverb  faith- 
fully, and  by  the  object  the  small  daily  duties  of  life. 


236  IN  FIN  IT  I  VES 

To  be  loving. 

To  be  loved. 

To  have  loved. 

To  have  been  loving. 

To  have  been  loved. 

By  combining  the  infinitive  of  the  asserters  to  be  and  to 
have  with  the  two  participles  of  the  verb,  true  verb  groups 
are  formed  that  are  also  called  infinitives. 

a.  To  be  with  the  present  participle  forms  the  present 
progressive  infinitive  (active). 

EXAMPLE.     To  be  learning. 

b.  To  have  been  with  the  present  participle  forms  the 
perfect  progressive  infinitive  (active). 

EXAMPLE.     To  have  been  learning. 

c.  To  have  with  the  perfect  participle  forms  the  perfect 
active  infinitive. 

EXAMPLE.     To  have  gone. 

d.  To  be  with  the  perfect  participle  forms  the  present 
passive  infinitive. 

EXAMPLE.     To  be  written. 

e.  To  have  been  with  the  perfect   participle  forms  the 
perfect  passive  infinitive. 

EXAMPLE.     To  have  been  written. 


ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

„  ^  Ordinary  to  love  to  be  loved 

f  Progressive        to  be  loving  ..... 

p    f.         j  Ordinary  to  have  loved  to  have  been  loved 

i  Progressive        to  have  been  loving  ..... 


REVIEW  237 

126.     REVIEW. 
Exercise. 

Point  out  the  infinitives  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  the 
voice  (active  or  passive),  tense,  and  office  of  each  :  — 

1 .  I  hope  to  leave  town  to-morrow. 

2.  When  I  looked  into  his  office  door,  the  doctor  seemed  to  be  writing 

a  prescription. 

3.  To  see  her  is  to  love  her. 

4.  To  be  loved  is  pleasant  to  all. 

5.  See,  winter  comes  to  rule  the  varied  year. 

6.  Teach  me  to  feel  another's  woe, 

To  hide  the  faults  I  see. 

7.  The  child  appears  to  have  accomplished  his  task. 

8.  I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  seashore. 

9.  I  never  could  believe  that  Providence  had  sent  a  few  men  into  the 

world  ready  booted  and  spurred  to  ride,  and  millions  ready 
saddled  and  bridled  to  be  ridden. 

10.  The  manuscript  seems  to  have  been  written  many  years  ago. 

11.  He  ought  to  have  been  studying  when  in  reality  he  was  dreaming. 

12.  O  God,  that  men  should  put  an  enemy  in  their  mouths  to  steal 

away  their  brains ! 

13.  The  cock  and  hens  seemed  to  know  that  it  was  Sunday,  and  made 

only  crooning,  subdued  noises. 

14.  She  was  of  the  opinion  that  church,  like  other  luxuries,  was  not 

to  be  indulged  in  often  by  a  man  who  had  the  weather  on  his 
mind. 

15.  I  shall  think  it  my  duty  as  a  clergyman  and  a  magistrate  to  interfere. 

1 6.  The  boy  ought  not  to  have  loitered  on  the  way. 

17.  And  then  the  day  came  back  to  him,  when  he  was  a  little  fellow 

and  used  to  run  by  his  father's  side,  proud  to  be  taken  out  to 
work,  and  prouder  still  to  hear  his  father  boasting  of  him  to  his 
fellow-workmen. 

Use  the  correct  expression  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  remem- 
bering that  the  perfect  infinitive  represents  completion  at  the  time 
referred  to  by  the  principal  verb  :  — 

.        to  have  warned  . 
i.    It  was  your  duty  him. 

to  warn 


238  INFINITIVES 

.  to  have  seen 

2.  I  wished  you. 

to  see 

.  to  have  been 

3.  I  should  have  been  pleased       .  with  you. 

to  be 

,  to  have  called 

4.  My  mother  expected  ..  upon  you  yesterday. 

to  have  seen  . 

5.  I  am  sorry  not  her  before  she  went  away. 

to  see  J 


127.    UNUSUAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. 

The  infinitive  is  often  used  in  ways  quite  difficult  to 
understand.  Many  of  these  are  what  must  be  considered 
idiomatic  uses,  and  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XIX ;  but 
several  are  comprehended  by  comparing  them  with  simi- 
lar, but  simpler  constructions. 

Sometimes  a  conjunctive  adverb  introduces  an  infini- 
tive phrase,  as  clauses  are  introduced. 

EXAMPLE.     I  know  when  to  go.    (when  I  should  go) 

To  go  when  may  be  called  an  objective  infinitive  phrase,  the  base 
to  go  being  modified  by  the  adverb  when  ;  or  when  may  be  called  object 
of  know,  modified  by  the  adverbial  infinitive. 

The  conjunctive  adverb  as  often  becomes  a  preposition 
before  an  infinitive  phrase. 

EXAMPLE.     Her  hair  was  so  arranged  as  to  conceal  her  brow. 

Here  so  is  an  adverb  modifying  was  arranged,  and  is  modified  by 
the  prepositional  adverbial  phrase  as  to  conceal,  etc ,  in  which  as  is  the 
preposition,  and  to  conceal  the  base  of  the  idea  part,  modified,  accord- 
ing to  its  verbal  nature,  by  the  object  her  brow. 

An  infinitive  used  as  attribute  after  an  asserter  or  a 
copulative  verb  is  sometimes  difficult  to  parse. 

EXAMPLE.     He  seemed  to  tremble. 

This  is  like  He  seemed  tremulous,  or  He  was  tremulous.  Seemed  is 
asserter,  and  to  tremble  is  attribute. 


UNUSUAL    CONSTRUCTIONS  239 

I  found  a  friend  to  serve  me. 

Friend  is  the  object  of  found,  and  also  the  subject  of 
to  serve. 

Usually  there  is  no  expressed  subject  for  an  infinitive, 
since  in  its  true  infinitive  nature  it  is  tied  to  no  particular 
subject.  When  the  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  expressed, 
it  is  usually  also  the  object  of  another  verb  or  of  a  prepo- 
sition. 

EXAMPLE.     I  asked  for  you  to  accompany  me. 
You  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  for  and  also  the  subject  of  the 
infinitive  to  accompany. 

I  asked  you  to  go. 

This  means  1  asked  the  going  of  you.  To  go  is  direct, 
and^w  indirect,  object  of  the  predicate  verb  asked. 

In  many  cases,  the  objective  subject  of  the  infinitive  is 
an  indirect  object  of  a  verb,  of  which  the  infinitive  itself 
is  direct  object.  This  is  different  from  /  desired  yon  to 
go.  In  that  sentence  you  to  go  is  equivalent  to  that  you 
should  go ;  such  a  clause  used  as  the  object  of  asked  alters 
the  meaning. 

I  knew  it  to  be  him. 

It  is  the  object  of  knew  and  the  subject  of  to  be.  Hence 
him  is  objective,  because  its  identity  with  an  object  is 
shown  by  to  be. 

I  found  an  example  to  analyze. 

An  example  is  the  object  of  found,  and  also  the  object 
of  the  infinitive  to  analyze,  which  yet  modifies  example 
adjectively,  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  being  similar  to 
I  found  an  example  which  I  could  analyze. 


240 


INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES 


128.     REVIEW. 

In  parsing  an  infinitive,  follow  the  subjoined  outline  :  — 
True  infinitive 


Infinitive 


Meaning 


Form 


Use 


Limited  to  subject 

Based  on  voice  j^Ctive 
I  Passive 

Based  on  condition  of  j  Ordinary 
act  I  Progressive 

f  Present 
1  Perfect 
Substantive 
Adjective 
Objective 
Adverbial 
Predicate  in  infinitive  clause  (p.  249) 


Based  on  time 


Modifiers  (  According  to  nature 
I  According  to  use 


According 

Exercise. 
Parse  the  infinitives  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1 .  I  did  not  know  what  to  do  under  the  circumstances. 

2.  She  seemed  to  suffer  agony. 

3.  The  affair  was  so  managed  as  to  give  each  person  a  good  view  of 

the  performance. 

4.  We  telegraphed  for  the  stage  to  await  us. 

5.  We  wished  the  children  to  study  German. 

6.  I  know  it  to  be  her. 

7.  John  understood  when  to  jest  and  when  to  be  serious. 

8.  The  money  was  so  divided  as  to  give  to  each  family  the  right 

amount. 

9.  She  wished  to  give  me  a  present. 

10.   To  have  enjoyed  such  a  treat  is  a  pleasant  memory, 
j  i .    I  hoped  to  reach  town  to-morrow. 


FORMS   OF  PARTICIPLES  24! 

129.     FORMS   OF  PARTICIPLES. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  participles  are  two  in 
number,  present  and  perfect  or  complete. 

The  raging  flood  tore  away  all  obstructions. 
The  sea  built  up  the   shore,    dropping  sand  and  pebbles 
upon  it. 

The  present  participle  ending  in  ing,  when  not  infinitive 
or  substantive  in  meaning,  is  usually  adjective  or  adverbial 
in  use.  It  refers  to  some  noun  or  pronoun  mentioned  in 
the  sentence,  and  represents  that  noun  or  pronoun  as  acting 
or  being. 

The  crushed  flower  yields  perfume. 

My  aunt,  impressed  by  my  arguments,  yielded. 

The  complete  participle  also  refers  to  some  noun  or 
pronoun,  and,  when  used  adjectively,  represents  it  as 
receiving. 

The  participles  of  the  asserters  to  be  and  to  have  com- 
bine with  the  participles  of  verbs  to  make  participle  groups 
or  participial  phrases.  These  are  used  just  as  other 
phrases  are. 

a.  Having,  combined  with  the  complete  participle,  forms 
the  perfect  active. 

EXAMPLE.     The  rain,  having  fallen  steadily  for  days,  flooded  the 

roads. 
Fallen  is  the  idea  word,  and  having  shows  its  relation  to  rain. 

b.  Being,  combined  with  the  complete  participle,  forms 
the  present  passive. 

EXAMPLE.     My  watch,  being  broken,  goes  badly. 
Broken  is  the  idea  part,  which  is  related  to  watch  by  being. 
p.  c.  GRAM. —  1 6 


242  PARTICIPLES 

c.    Having  been,  combined  with  the  complete  participle, 
forms  the  perfect  passive. 

EXAMPLE.     The  marsh,  having  been  drained,  proved  fertile. 
Drained  is  the  idea  word,  related  to  marsh  by  having  been. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Present.          loving  being  loved 

Perfect.  having  loved  having  been  loved 

Exercise. 

Point  oift  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  the 
voice,  tense,  and  use  of  each  :  — 

1 .  The  sparkling  river  rushed  merrily  along. 

2.  The  man,  deserted  in  his  time  of  need,  faced  the  enemy  alone. 

3.  He  trudged  along  unknowing  what  he  sought. 

4.  The  river  being  frozen  now  formed  a  highway  for  travel. 

5.  The  roads  are  made  of  crushed  stone. 

6.  The  birds,  having  migrated  southward,  were  missed  from  their 

haunts. 

7.  The  letter,  having  been  sent  to  the  wrong  address,  was  returned  to 

the  writer. 

8.  Through  tattered  clothes  small  vices  do  appear; 
Robes  and  furred  gowns  hide  all. 

9.  Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again. 

10.  The  steamer,  being  delayed,  was  not  able  to  bring  the  mail  at  the 

appointed  time. 

11.  Diseases  desperate  grown  by  desperate  appliances  are  relieved. 

12.  We  wish   that   this   column,   rising    toward    heaven   among  the 

pointed  spires  of  so  many  temples  dedicated  to  God,  may  con- 
tribute also  to  produce  in  all  minds  a  pious  feeling  of  dependence 
and  gratitude. 

13.  The  vessel,  having  been  quarantined,  lay  at  anchor  down  the  bay. 

14.  The  money,  being  gone,  could  not  be  so  applied. 

15.  The  enemy,  having  surrendered,  were  forced  to  give  up  their  guns. 

1 6.  Changing,  fading,  falling,  flying 

From  the  homes  that  gave  them  birth, 
Autumn  leaves  in  beauty  dying 
Seek  the  mother  breast  of  earth. 


MEANINGS  AND    USES   OF  PARTICIPLES  243 


130.     MEANINGS  AND  USES   OF  PARTICIPLES. 

Living  is  loving ;   To  live  is  to  love. 

Living  near  her  is  being  happy ;    To  live  near  her  is  to  be 

happy. 
I  dislike  quarreling ;  I  dislike  to  quarrel. 

If  the  present  participle  is  used  as  a  subject,  an  attribute, 
or  an  objective  element  or  base,  and  modified  only  accord- 
ing to  its  verbal  nature,  it  is  infinitive  in  meaning,  in  which 
case  the  infinitive  may  usually  be  substituted  for  it. 


His  anger  found  vent  in  raging  at  his  enemies. 
The  wind  took  vengeance  by  blowing  loud. 
The  duty  of  loving  is  neglected. 

If  used  as  object  of  a  preposition  and  modified  only 
according  to  its  verbal  nature,  the  present  participle  has 
generally  a  meaning  different  from  the  infinitive,  in  which 
case  it  is  impossible  to  substitute  the  infinitive  for  it. 


The  loving  are  the  daring. 

Here   the   adjective    modifier    the   makes   loving  mean 
.people  who   love,    and  so    destroys   entirely   the    infinitive 

meaning. 

+ 

The  man  plowing  in  the  field  was  sunstruck. 
The  hunter  chased  ^&  panting  deer. 

These  participles  modify  adjectively  the  nouns  which  are 
their  subjects. 


244  PARTICIPLES 

The  man  was  sunstruck  standing  in  the  field. 
Standing  before  my  tent,  I  shot  the  deer. 

These  participles  refer  to  the  subject  bases  of  the  sen- 
tences as  their  subjects,  yet  modify  the  predicate  bases 

adverbially. 

+ 

He  objected  to  my  doing  the  work. 

The  most  remarkable  construction  is  that  in  which  the 
subject  of  the  present  active  participle  is  possessive  in 
form,  being  used  as  a  possessive  adjective  modifier  of  the 
participle. 

Doing  refers  to  my  as  its  subject,  yet  my  is  an  adjective 
modifier  of  doing,  and  doing  is  also  modified,  according  to 
its  verbal  nature,  by  the  object  tJie  ivork. 


To  die  for  her  is  serving  thee. 
To  labor  only,  is  to  live. 

In  some  cases  an  infinitive  subject  is  explained  by  a 
participle  attribute ;  but  it  is  more  elegant  to  use  like 
forms  in  the  two  cases. 

It  is  difficult  to  decide  when  a  participle  becomes  a  true 
noun,  and  how  long  it  retains  so  much  of  its  verbal  nature 
as  to  admit  of  adverbial  modifiers.  One  can  say  :  — 

Singing  the  responses  is  the  usual  method,  in  which  case 

singing  is  a  participle  ;  or, 
The  singing  of  the  responses  sounded  well,  in  which  case 

singing  is  a  noun  ;  or  even, 
The  singing  the  responses  plainly  pleases  me,  in  which  case 

singing  is  modified   by  both  adjective  and  adverbial 

modifiers.     But  this  last  form  is  not  usual. 


MEANINGS  AND    USES   OF  PARTICIPLES  245 

My  lodgings  suit  me. 

The  participle  sometimes  loses  entirely  its  verbal  nature, 
and  becomes  so  true  "a  noun  as  to  adopt  the  inflection  of 
the  noun.  It  is  then  no  longer  a  participle,  but  a  noun. 

This  is  never  true  of  the  infinitive,  not  only  because  its 
form  would  render  such  expressions  as  to  lodges  impossi- 
ble, but  also  because  it  never  loses  its  verbal  nature  suffi- 
ciently to  be  modified  by  an  adjective  element  placed  next 
it,  though  it  seems  to  be  modified  by  adjectives  when  they 
are  used  as  attributes. 

EXAMPLE.     One  can  say  To  obey  is  good',  but  not  Good  to  obey. 

Many  participial  adjectives  have  become  so  thoroughly 
adjective  in  nature  as  to,  have  synonyms  which  are  not 
participial  in  origin. 

EXAMPLES,     surprising  —  wonderful  lasting  —  permanent 

loving —  affectionate  aspiring  —  ambitious, 

pleasing  —  delightful 

It  is  often  impossible  to  judge  of  the  office  of  a  participle 
by  its  form.  The  test  here,  as  always,  is,  Why  is  this  word 
here  ?  What  does  it  do  ? 

It  is  often  possible  to  make  a  choice  in  interpreting  the 
use  of  a  participle,  as  to  whether  it  is  used  adjectively  or 
adverbially.  The  best  way  to  decide  is  to  develop  the 
word  element  into  a  clause. 

EXAMPLE.     I  saw  the  moon  rising. 

I  saw  the  moon  which  was  rising',  or,  I  saw  the  moon  when  it  was 
rising. 

EXAMPLE.     A  fox,  having  caught  a  hen,  thus  spoke. 

A  fox  that  had  caught  a  hen  ;  or,  A  fox,  when  he  had  caught  a  hen. 

EXAMPLE.     John,  being  tired,  went  to  bed. 

John,  who  was  tired;  or,  John,  because  he  was  tired. 


246 


PARTICIPLES 


131.     REVIEW. 

In  parsing  a  participle,  or  participial  phrase,  follow  the 
subjoined  outline :  — 

f  Meaning  (  True  infinitive 

I  Limited  by  subject 

Based  on  voice  {  Active 
I  Passive 

Based  on  time  {  Present  (Progressive; 
I  Perfect 

Substantive 

Adjective 

Objective 

Adverbial 

Predicate  in  participial  clause  (p.  249) 

•MT  J-.G       f  According  to  nature 
Modifiers  l 

( According  to  use 


Participle 


Form 


Use 


Exercise. 

Parse  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences,  and  also  point  out 
true  adjectives  and  nouns  that  are  participial  in  form :  — 

1 .  Rest  is  not  quitting  the  busy  career, 
Rest  is  the  fitting  of  self  to  one's  sphere. 
'Tis  the  brook's  motion,  clear,  without  strife, 
Fleeting  to  ocean  after  its  life ; 

'Tis  loving  and  serving  the  highest  and  best ; 
'Tis  onward  unswerving;  and  this  is  true  rest. 

2.  Mourn  for  the  living,  not  the  dead 

Whose  mortal  woes  are  o'er. 

3.  Scipio's  ghost  walks  unavenged  among  us. 

4.  Whence  this  pleasing  hope,  this  fond  desire. 

This  longing  after  immortality  ! 

5.  Pleased  at  the  praise  bestowed  upon  us,  we  made  more  mighty 

efforts. 

6.  Nightly  to  the  listening  multitudes  he  told  the  tidings  of  salvation. 


PARTICIPIAL  AND  INFINITIVE    CLAUSES  247 

7.  Painting  has  improved  little  since  the  days  of  the  ancients. 

8.  The  paintings  that  adorn  the  Louvre  are  the  finest  in  France. 

9.  History  is  philosophy  teaching  by  examples. 

10.  The  picture,  placed  the  busts  between, 
Adds  to  the  thought  much  strength. 

1 1 .  Pleased  to  the  last,  he  crops  the  flowery  food, 
And  licks  the  hand  just  raised  to  shed  his  blood. 

12.  Nothing,  except  a  battle  lost,  can  be  half  so  melancholy  as  a  battle 

won. 

13.  At  length,  the  situation  having  become  embarrassing.  Jenny  Lind 

ran  forward  to  the  footlights. 

14.  Being  assured  of  a  welcome,  we  ventured  to  intrude  upon  him. 

15.  Having  once  drawn  his  sword  for  freedom,  and  being  embarked 

upon  a  righteous  cause,   he  rested  not  until  his  purpose  was 
accomplished. 

1 6.  The  young  man,  having  failed  to  pass  his  examination,  obtained  a 

situation  in  a  store. 

17.  The  peculiarity  of  Grant's  tactics  was  that,  having  once  been  re- 

pulsed, he  pressed  forward  with  unabated  vigor. 

18.  Tis  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  lore, 
And  coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before. 

19.  Robert  E.  Lee,  having  been  reared  amid  Southern  institutions,  and 

being  devoted  to  the  interest  of  his  own  state,  felt  it  his  duty  to 
resign  his  commission  in  the  United  States  army. 


132.    PARTICIPIAL  AND   INFINITIVE  CLAUSES. 

What  is  a  clause  ? 

The   clauses   so   far   considered   have   contained  finite 
predicates. 

EXAMPLES.     The  boy  whom  I  saw  is  now  gone. 
I  wish  that  she  would  come. 
That  she  came  soon  pleased  me. 
Because  the  carriage  stopped  I  was  late. 

The  predicate  of   such   a  clause  is  assertive,  and   the 
clause,    were   it  disjoined  from  its  principal,  its  subordi- 


248  INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES 

nate  connective  being  omitted  or  changed  to  a  word  per- 
forming one  office,  would  be  a  complete  sentence  capable 
of  standing  alone  without  further  alteration. 

EXAMPLES.     I  saw  him. 

She  would  come. 
She  came  soon. 
The  carriage  stopped. 

Such  a  clause  may  sometimes  be  abridged  without  sub- 
tracting any  essential  part,  by  causing  the  predicate  to 
assume  rather  than  assert. 

EXAMPLES.     I  wish  her  to  come. 


Her  coming  soon  pleased  me. 

The  carriage  having  stopped,  I  was  late. 

In  such  cases  the  subordinate  connective  is  not  usually 
retained.  The  abbreviated  clause  can  no  longer  stand 
alone  as  a  sentence  if  disjoined  from  its  principal,  since 
the  relation  of  predicate  to  subject  is  assumed,  not  asserted. 

EXAMPLES.     Her  to  come. 

Her  coming  soon. 

The  carriage  having  stopped. 
None  of  the  above  expressions  is  a  sentence. 

The  troubles,  which  ^vere  coming  apace,  alarmed  me. 
The  troubles,  coming  apace,  alarmed  me. 

The  clause  which  were  coming  apace,  in  losing  its  con- 
nective loses  its  subject  as  well,  and  becomes  in  its 
abridged  form  a  word  element,  coming  apace. 

I  wished  that  the  days  would  pass  swiftly. 
I  wished  the  days  to  pass  siviftly. 

The  clause  that  the  days  would  pass  swiftly  loses  its 
connective  but  not  its  subject ;  the  predicate  becomes 


PARTICIPIAL   AND   INFINITIVE    CLAUSES  249 

assumptive  but  remains  a  predicate.  The  element  is  still 
composed  of  subject  and  predicate  combined,  but  the  predi- 
cate is  enfeebled  —  has  lost  its  assertive  power. 

Since  such  an  abbreviated  clause  retains  the  base  or 
necessary  parts  of  the  clause,  it  is  still  a  clause ;  but,  since 
the  usual  finite  assertive  predicate  is  changed  to  an  infini- 
tive or  participial  predicate,  the  resultant  clause  may  be 
called  an  infinitive  clause,  or  a  participial  clause,  accord- 
ing to  the  change  which  the  predicate  undergoes.  These 
infinitive  and  participial  clauses  perform  the  same  offices 
as  the  finite  clauses  from  which  they  are  derived,  but  seem 
to  be  more  closely  connected  with  their  principals  because 
of  the  frequent  omission  of  the  connective  which  makes 
plain  the  relation  of  the  finite  clause. 
EXAMPLES.  I  wished  my  friend  to  go. 

They  being  with  me,  I  was  encouraged. 

This  said,  he  turned  and  fled. 


CHAPTER   XVIII.  — FINE   POINTS   OF   ANALYSIS. 
133.     STRUCTURE  OF   SENTENCES. 

It  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  decide  whether  a 
sentence  is  complex  or  compound.  The  logical  relation 
of  the  clauses  is  often  clearer  than  the  grammatical  rela- 
tion, and  the  grammarian's  sense  of  this  logical  relation 
may  influence  him  in  his  analysis  of  grammatical  elements. 

You  shall  not  die ;  France  needs  you. 

France  needs  you ;  therefore  you  shall  not  die. 

You  shall  not  die,  for  France  needs  you. 

The  first  sentence,  above,  is  clearly  compound  in  form. 
The  second  is  by  some  called  compound,  therefore  belong- 
ing to  the  and  group  of  coordinate  conjunctions ;  but 
others  call  it  complex,  since  therefore  shows  a  relation  of 
the  second  clause  to  the  statement  contained  in  the  first. 
It  cannot,  however,  be  said  truthfully  that  the  second 
clause  performs  any  ordinary  office  within  its  principal 
clause,  and  hence  it  cannot  be  known  what  part  of  the 
principal  clause  it  modifies.  The  third  sentence  is  un- 
doubtedly complex  in  form.  The  thoughts  conveyed  by 
the  three  sentences,  however,  are  identical. 


A  sentence  which  appears  to  be  an  ordinary  complex 
sentence  in  its  formation  may  contain  a  subordinate  clause 
which  modifies,  not  some  part  of  the  apparent  main  clause, 

250 


PECULIAR    USES   Of  MODIFIERS  2$  I 

but  some  part  of  a  real  principal  which  is  present  in  the 
mind,  and  to  which  the  whole  sentence  is  logically  sub- 
ordinate. 

EXAMPLE.     She  was  angry,  for  she  frowned  at  me. 

She  frowned  at  me  appears  to  be  adverbial,  modifying  was  angry, 
but  it  does  not  really  give  the  reason  for  her  anger,  as  may  be  seen  by 
comparison  with  She  was  angry,  for  I  failed  to  answer  her.  There 
exists  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  a  real  principal,  /  kiipw,  to  which  She 
was  angry  and  She  frowned  at  me  are  both  subordinate.  These 
clauses,  then,  form  a  grammatically  complex  sentence,  but  are  logically 
both  subordinate. 

Exercise. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  Because  the  clouds  lower,  do  not  think  that  the  rain  must  fall. 

2.  I  cannot  go ;   I  fear  the  rain. 

3.  Come  to  me,  my  child  —  for  the  mother  heart  beats  high  within  me. 

4.  The  vote  was  cast,  so  I  was  told. 

5.  The  polls  were  closed,  so  I  went  home. 

6.  The  answer  came,  for  I  saw  the  messenger  enter. 


134.    PECULIAR  USES   OF  MODIFIERS. 

In  some  cases  an  adjective  element  modifies,  not  a  noun 
only,  but  an  expression  of  which  a  noun  is  the  base. 

EXAMPLE.     Five  old  men. 

Five  modifies  not  the  word  men  only,  but  the  group  old  men, 

EXAMPLES.     All  my  ways. 

Three  young  men. 
My  older  sister. 

If  two  or  more  adjectives  in  succession  modify  the 
same  substantive,  they  should  be  separated  by  commas; 
but  if  each  of  them  modifies  the  succeeding  group  of 
words,  the  commas  should  be  omitted. 


252  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

EXAMPLES.     The  good,  valiant,  unfortunate  man. 

The  two  poor  old  men. 

Good,  valiant,  and  unfortunate  modify,  severally,  man;  but  two 
modifies  poo*  old  men,  and  poor  modifies  old  men. 

So,  also,  an  adverbial  element  sometimes  modifies,  not 
a  word,  but  a  group  of  words. 

EXAMWLE.     I  learn  a  long  poem  often. 

Often  does  not  modify  learn  alone,  but  the  idea  expressed  by  the 
entire  group  of  words,  learn  a  long  poetn. 

EXAMPLE.     It  will  bring  my  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 
With  sorrow  and  to  the  grave  do  not  modify  the  predicate  base 
alone,  but  the  modified  predicate,  will  bring  my  gray  hairs. 

In  some  cases  an  adverbial  element  modifies  an  adjective 
or  adverbial  phrase  as  if  the  phrase  were  a  single  word, 
instead  of  modifying  the  idea  part  of  the  phrase  only. 

EXAMPLE.     We  rode  far  into  the  forest. 

It  is  possible  to  say  that  far  modifies  rode,  but  it  also  modifies  the 
entire  phrase  into  the  forest.  This  is  plainer  in  We  rode  far  away. 

EXAMPLE.     Father, 'save  those  at  sea  to-night. 

To-night  modifies  the  whole  phrase  at  sea ;  not  the  word  sea. 

EXAMPLE.     I  was  born  not  four  hours'  walk  from  London. 

In  this  case  the  phrase  from  London  is  modified  by  the  noun  walk, 
used  adverbially,  as  a  measure ;  and  walk,  in  its  substantive  nature,  is 
modified  by  the  possessive  hours'1,  which  in  its  turn  is  modified  by  the 
adjective  word  element  not  four. 

An  element  may  be  explanatory  of  a  phrase  or  clause. 

EXAMPLE.     From  morn  till  noon  he  fell ;  from  noon  till  dewy  eve, 

a  summer's  day. 

A  summers  day  explains  from  morn  till  noon,  from  noon  till  dewy 
eve,  which  are  adverbial  phrases,  so  it  is  adverbial  in  use. 

EXAMPLE.     We  hope   that   reinforcements  will  come  —  a  forlorn 
hope. 


PASSIVE    CONSTRUCTION  2$$ 

A  phrase  or  clause  also  may  be  explanatory  of  an  adjec- 
tive or  adverb ;  it  is  then  adverbial. 

EXAMPLES.     Now,  while  we  wait,  I  will  tell  you. 

When  I  shall  come,  then  you  will  see  it. 

135.     PASSIVE  CONSTRUCTION. 

She  smiled  on  me. 

I  was  smiled  on  by  her. 

An  intransitive  verb  assumes  a  passive  construction 
when  the  object  of  a  preposition  is  made  the  subject  of 
the  sentence. 

This  is  similar  to  those  cases  in  which  a  verb  and  prepo- 
sition are  united  in  meaning  (p.  259). 

He  walked  a  mile. 

The  mile  was  walked  by  him. 

An  intransitive  verb,  followed  by  a  noun  used  adverbi- 
ally to  indicate  measure,  may  assume  a  passive  form  and 
take  the  noun  of  measure  for  its  subject,  the  former  subject 
following  as  agent.  The  whole  sentence  is  then  similar  in 
form  to  an  ordinary  passive  construction. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  respecting  whether  or 
not  the  active  form,  The  house  is  building,  is  correct  in  the 
sense  of  the  passive  form,  The  house  is  being  built.  Good 
usage  seems  to  sanction  either  expression;  but  the  active 
form  for  a  passive  idea  is  then  idiomatic. 

Usually  a  passive  verb  takes  no  object,  the  object  of 
the  corresponding  active  verb  having  become  the  subject; 
but  if  the  subject  of  an  infinitive  clause  becomes  the  sub- 
ject of  the  principal  clause  in  a  passive  construction,  its 
infinitive  predicate  remains  as  object. 

EXAMPLE.     They  told  him  to  leave. 
He  was  told  to  leave. 


254  FINE   POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

Also,  if  a  verb  capable  of  having  both  direct  and  indirect 
objects  becomes  passive  in  form,  the  indirect  object  may 
become  subject,  and  the  direct  object  remain  in  its  proper 
objective  position. 

EXAMPLE.     They  told  me  that  the  train  was  late. 

I  was  told  that  the  train  was  late. 

Me,  the  indirect  object,  is  now  the  subject ;  that  the  train  was  late 
is  the  direct  object. 

Such  verbs  as  advise  or  notify,  in  the  sense  of  tell,  take 
the  person  told  as  direct  object,  and  the  thing  told  as 
an  indirect  object  after  of,  if  it  is  a  word  element.  If  it 
is  a  phrase  or  clause  it  requires  no  preposition,  but  seems 
to  be  a  second  direct  object. 

EXAMPLE.     They  advised  me  of  his  coming. 
They  advised  me  to  come. 
They  advised  me  that  it  was  late. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  representing  the  person  told  takes 
the  place  of  the  subject  if  the  verb  becomes  passive,  and 
the  impersonal  object  remains  objective. 

EXAMPLE.     I  was  advised  of  the  news. 
I  was  advised  to  come. 
I  was  advised  that  it  was  late. 

136.     APPOSITION. 

In  they  rushed,  men,  women,  and  cJiildren. 
They  were  all  routed  —  horse,  foot,  and  dragoons. 

These  explanatory  terms,  combined,  amount  to  the  same 
thing  as  their  principal,  and  each  is  an  adjective  element. 

My  trouble  is  this  :  that  my  health  is  broken. 

In  this  sentence,  this  is  an  attribute,  and  the  clause  which 
follows  is  in  apposition  with  this,  and  is  therefore  adjective. 


INDEPENDENT T  ELEMENTS  2$$ 

Thus  is  often  so  followed. 

EXAMPLE.     It  was  thus  :  I  loved  him,  but  he  loved  not  me. 

They  elected  him  emperor. 
Emperor  is  in  apposition  with  him. 

He  was  elected  emperor. 

Here  emperor  is  an  attribute  ;  was  elected,  though  a 
passive  assertive  phrase  with  a  verbal  complement,  serves 
as  an  asserter. 

137.     INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS. 

Inter] ectional,  purely  introductory,  and  many  parenthetic 
expressions  are  independent. 

EXAMPLES.    Well,  as  I  was  saying,  she  came  in. 
Now  Charles  was  a  seaman. 
To  speak  truly,  I  did  not  know  him. 

Whole  phrases  may  be  independent,  used  as  interjec- 
tions, or  simply  cut  off  from  grammatical  connection. 
EXAMPLE.     Oh,  to  be  happy  ! 

Parenthetic  phrases  or  clauses  are  often  treated  as 
independent  when  they  logically  modify  some  element  in 
the  sentence  or  enforce  the  entire  statement. 

EXAMPLES.     To  tell  the  truth,  I  love  you  not. 
Indeed,  it  is  mine. 
Generally  speaking,  it  is  rainy  here. 

To  tell  the  truth  and  indeed  are  modifiers  or  strengtheners  of  the 
whole  sentence,  and  are  best  called  independent ;  but  generally  speak- 
ing, though  often  called  independent,  is  really  adverbial,  equivalent  to 
usually,  and  modifies  is. 

EXAMPLE.     Height  on  height  the  mountains  rise. 

Height  on  height  may  be  considered  as  modifying  either  mountains 
or  rise.  The  expression  is  not  by  form,  by  position,  or  by  relation 
word  connected  with  any  element  of  the  sentence. 


256  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

-  EXAMPLES.     Not  to  delay  you,  I  set  out  and  arrived  safe. 

Staff  in  hand  we  climbed  the  hill. 

Not  to  delay  you  is  almost  purely  independent,  as  the  sentence  reads 
equally  well  without  it ;  but  Staff  in  hand  is  adverbial  or  adjective. 

138.     USES   OF  PHRASES. 
It  is  of  little  account. 

An  entire  phrase  may  serve  as  attribute ;  but  this  is  not 
an  elegant  construction. 

A  phrase  may  be  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

EXAMPLE.  In  the  expression  from  on  high,  from  is  a  preposition 
whose  object  is  the  phrase  on  high. 

An  objective  phrase  is  usually  an  infinitive;  but  an  ordi- 
nary prepositional  phrase  also  may  be  objective. 

EXAMPLE.     She  gave  me  of  the  tree. 

The  original  object  was  probably  some,  modified  by  of  the  tree  used 
adjectively.  The  phrase,  deprived  of  its  principal,  is  used  pronominally, 
its  preposition  serving  merely  to  introduce  it. 

Phrases  are  rarely  used  as  relation  words.  A  phrase 
may,  however,  be  used  as  a  conjunction. 

EXAMPLE.     In  case  we  come,  we  will  bring  it  with  us. 
In  case  is  synonymous  with  if. 

a.  I  will  go  in  this  case,  that  you  wish  it. 

b.  I  will  go  in  the  case  you  wish  it. 

c.  I  will  go  in  case  you  wish  it. 

In  case  still  consists  of  preposition  and  object,  but  we 
have  lost  all  sense  of  its  real  meaning  and  regard  it  only 
in  its  present  connective  use. 

The  expression  come  out  from  under  the  table  may  be 
explained  by  calling  out  an  adverb, //w;/  under  the  table  an 
adverbial  phrase,  from  the  preposition,  and  under  the  table 
its  object.  In  this  case,  under  does  not  perform  its  usual 


PRONOUNS  AND    CLAUSES 

duty,  since  it  fails  to  show  a  relation  to  a  principal.  From 
under,  like  out  of,  over  against,  and  other  pairs  of  words, 
may  be  regarded  like  one  preposition  in  use.  From  such 
constructions  came  the  present  prepositions  into,  upon,  unto, 
and  the  like. 

139.     PRONOUNS   AND   CLAUSES. 

A  pronoun  may  represent  an  entire  statement. 

EXAMPLE.     The  day  will  be  fine  ;  who  doubts  it? 
//  represents  the  statement  The  day  will  define. 
EXAMPLE.     He  did  not  come,  which  I  regret. 
Which  represents  the  entire  statement  He  did  not  come. 

The  use  of  the  relative  in  the  second  example  causes 
the  sentence  to  be  considered  either  compound  or  com- 
plex, according  to  the  importance  given  to  grammatical 
usage  or  logical  relation.  A  relative  usually  shows  a 
subordinate  relation  of  a  clause  to  its  principal ;  but  the 
principal  here  is  an  entire  statement,  and  which  seems 
equivalent  to  and  this. 

In  some  cases  only  a  part  of  an  objective  clause  is  felt 
to  be  the  real  object  of  the  main  verb ;  but  usually  the 
object  is  the  whole  clause. 

EXAMPLE.     I  hate  what  you  like. 

This  means  I  hate  the  thing  which  you  like. 

EXAMPLE.     I  know  what  you  like. 

In  this  sentence,  the  whole  clause  what  you  like  is  the  object  of 
know ;  —  I  know  the  whole  fact,  —  and  it  would  mean  something  differ- 
ent to  say  /  know  the  thing  which  you  like.  This  is  even  clearer  in 
the  sentence  /  know  that  you  like  me. 

The  same  is  true,  also,  of  phrases. 
EXAMPLE.     She  knows  how  to  do  it. 

It  is  customary  to  call  the  whole  phrase  objective,  yet  it  is  chiefly 
how  which  is  the  thing  known. 

P.  C.  GRAM.  —  17 


258  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

An  objective  clause  is  often  really  an  adjective  modifier 
of  an  omitted  object. 

EXAMPLE.  /  know  where  he  lives  may  mean  /  know  the  place  where 
he  lives. 

A  clause  introduced  by  that  is  generally  purely  objective. 

EXAMPLES.     I  know  that  he  is  coming. 
I  erred  in  that  I  loved  him. 

The  same  difference  exists  in  substantive  clauses.  In 
the  sentence  Whatever  is,  is  rig/it,  Whatever  is  the  true 
subject  of  the  principal  clause ;  and  the  statement  means, 
That  iv hick  is,  is  rig/it.  In  the  sentence  That  he  is  ill 
appears  certain,  the  whole  undivided  clause  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb  appears. 


140.     COMBINATIONS   OF  WORDS. 

Some  words  in  English  are  easily  combined  with  others 
to  form  new  words. 

EXAMPLES.     Up  with  on  makes  upon. 

Joy  with/W/  makes  joyful. 

Many  of  our  verbs  have,  in  the  past,  formed  such 
combinations  with  auxiliary  verbs,  or  occasionally  with 
adverbs. 

EXAMPLES.     Love  and  some  auxiliary  like  did —  loved. 
Can  and  not  —  cannot. 

But  verbs  are  slow  to  unite  with  prepositions.  We  have 
undertake,  overthrow,  withhold,  and  a  few  others ;  but,  as  a 
rule,  even  where  the  meanings  have  become  so  welded 
together  as  to  form  one  idea  in  the  mind,  the  words  still 
stand  apart.  Such  cases  of  combined  sense,  though 


OMISSIONS  259 

divided  expressions,  occur  where  the  only  possible  gram- 
matical disposition  is  to  call  the  words  one. 

EXAMPLES.     That  must  -be  thought  of. 
It  shall  be  seen  to. 
He  was  spoken  of. 

In  many  of  these  cases  the  verb  is  intransitive,  but  the 
object  of  the  preposition  which  follows  is  made  the  subject 
of  a  passive  construction  (see  p.  253). 


Two  words  are  often  so  closely  united  in  common  use 
that  it  is  difficult  to  disentangle  their  grammatical  relations. 

EXAMPLE.     They  love  each  other. 

Each  is  an  explanatory  adjective  modifier  of  they,  and  other  is  the 
object  of  love. 

As  soon  as  may  readily  be  divided  into  two  adverbial  ele- 
ments and  one  conjunction. 

The  complex  origin  of  many  words  which  are  really 
combinations  of  two  or  more  original  words,  is  lost  sight 
of ;  but  in  such  verbs  as  meseems  and  met  kinks  >  this  origin 
is  plainly  apparent.  The  meaning  is,  to  me  it  seems,  in 
which  the  indirect  object  has  been  merged  with  the  verb, 
but  is  still  visible. 

141.     OMISSIONS. 

It  is  best,  if  possible,  to  parse  every  word  according 
to  its  present  use,  supplying  nothing.  There  are,  however, 
abridged  sentences  which  make  some  insertion  of  omitted 
words  necessary. 

EXAMPLE.     No  wonder  you  ask  it. 

This  means  //  is  no  wonder  that  you  ask  it. 


260  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

EXAMPLE.     Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be  blest. 

Either  man  has  a  compound  predicate,  never  is  blest,  but  always  is 
to  be  blest,  or  is  is  followed  by  a  compound  complement,  blest,  but  to  be 
blest. 

EXAMPLE.     Not  willing  I,  to  be  so  poor  a  tool. 
This  means  /  am  not  'willing. 

EXAMPLE.     Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view. 
The  omission  of  a  relative  pronoun  makes  it  necessary  to  employ  the 
one  noun,  distance,  in  two  constructions. 

EXAMPLE.     Take  the  goods  the  gods  provide. 

The  word  which  must  be  supplied,  or  goods  must  be  used  in  two 
constructions. 

EXAMPLE.     My  adventures  this  day. 

Here  the  omission  of  a  preposition  as  on  or  during  has  led  to  an 
unusual  construction. 

In  such  expressions  as  Ah  me,  it  is  customary  to  insert 
some  preposition  to  account  for  the  objective  form  of  the 
pronoun,  but  the  claims  of  euphony  account  for  it.  Ah  I 
would  sound  intolerable.  Poor  me,  however,  admits  of -no 
such  explanation  unless  it  arose  from  analogy. 

142.     SPECIAL  WORDS  CONSIDERED. 

A  and  The.  These  words  often  give  trouble  because  in 
each  case  there  are  two  different  words  spelled  alike.  The 
ordinary  word  a,  meaning  one,  is  an  adjective,  often  called 
the  indefinite  article ;  but  there  is  also  a  word  a,  mean- 
ing on  or  at.  The  meaning  this  or  that  is  an  adjective, 
often  called  the  definite  article ;  but  there  is  a  word  tJie 
having  an  adverbial  use,  sometimes  even  a  conjunctive 
adverbial  use,  for  which  the  language  supplies  no  synonym. 

EXAMPLES.     A  man  went  a  hunting. 

The  more  I  struggled,  the  faster  I  was  held. 
The  more  the  merrier. 


SPECIAL    WORDS   CONSIDERED  261 

I  was  held  the  faster  the  more  I  struggled.  This  means  I  was  held 
more  fast  as  (or  when}  I  struggled  more.  The  more  I  struggled  is  ad- 
verbial, modifying  was  held,  and  the  two  words  the  are  respectively 
adverbial  and  subordinate  conjunctive  in  use. 

The  more  the  merrier  is  of  like  construction,  with  so  much  omitted 
as  to  form  an  idiomatic  expression,  and  hence  is  beyond  the  scope  of 
ordinary  grammatic  rule. 

Yes  and  No  are  adverbs,  the  one  of  affirmation,  the  other 
of  negation,  which  have  come  to  be  used  to  represent  the 
sentences  which  they  at  first  strengthened  or  denied. 

EXAMPLES.     Are  you  going?     I  am  (yes)  going, —  Yes. 

Is  he  going?     He  is  not  going.     He  is  (no)  going, — 
No. 

But.  The  proper  use  of  but  requires  the  knowledge  of 
some  very  fine  distinctions  of  meaning.  The  original 
meaning  of  the  word  was  almost  the  same  as  except. 

EXAMPLES.     Who  but  him  would  so  act  ? 

None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 

As  a  conjunction,  however,  but  has  departed  quite  widely 
from  this  meaning.  In  the  sentence  But,  to  proceed,  we 
then  entered  the  church,  but  is  independent,  being  used  only 
to  introduce  the  sentence  and  make  logical  connection  with 
a  foregoing  part  of  the  discourse. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  the  verb  can  in  its  old 
sense,  as  predicate  verb,  but  is  used  in  two  widely  different 
ways. 

She  can  but  grieve  means  She  is  able  only  to  grieve.  Can 
is  the  principal  verb,  grieve  is  an  objective  infinitive,  and 
but  is  an  adverb.  The  sentence  means  She  can  do  nothing 
else  tJian  grieve. 

She  cannot  but  grieve  means  She  is  not  able  except  to 
grieve.  Cannot  is  the  verb,  and  but  is  a  preposition 


262  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

whose  object  is  the  infinitive  grieve.  The  sentence  means, 
SJie  can  do  nothing  else  but  (except)  grieve. 

As.  The  office  of  as  may  be  conjunctive,  pronominal, 
prepositional,  or  adverbial ;  but  it  often  partakes,  in  some 
degree,  of  more  than  one  nature.  From  its  use  as  conjunc- 
tion has  grown  the  custom  of  expecting  nominative  forms 
after  it. 

EXAMPLE.     He  is  as  wise  as  I  (am  wise). 

But  since  it  is  frequently  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun 
alone,  a  growing  tendency  exists  toward  treating  it  as  a 
preposition  and  allowing  an  object  after  it. 

EXAMPLE.    As  good  as  me. 

It  seems  to  be,  however,  copulative  in  its  nature,  like 
the  verb  to  be,  though  implying  instead  of  asserting  similar- 
ity ;  hence  in  the  writings  of  the  best  authors  it  is  usually 
followed  by  the  same  case  form  as  would  precede  it. 

EXAMPLES.    Can  such  a  fellow  as  I  succeed? 

To  such  a  creature  as  me,  she  was  kind. 

Combined  with  the  participle,  it  makes  groups  similar  in 
meaning  to  infinitives. 

EXAMPLES.     I  consider  him  as  having  lost  his  wits ;  I  consider  him 

to  have  lost  his  wits. 

I  consider  him  as  disgraced  ;  I  consider  him  to  be  dis- 
graced. 

Than  is  in  some  cases  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and  in 
other  cases  a  preposition. 

EXAMPLE.     You  are  wiser  than  I. 

This  means  You  are  wiser  than  I  am  wise. 

EXAMPLE.     Than  whom  none  is  sweeter. 

Since  whom  is  objective  in  form,  we  must  consider  than  in  this  case 
a  preposition. 


SPECIAL    WORDS   CONSIDERED  263 

The  French  often,  the  Germans  sometimes,  but  we  sel- 
dom, employ  one  form  in  preference  to  another  because 
it  sounds  better,  or  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  This  use 
with  than  may  be  such  a  case,  the  grammatical  require- 
ments yielding  to  the  desire  for  euphony.  Some  gram- 
marians even  allow  It  is  me  instead  of  //  is  /,  for  the  same 
reason. 

But  in  the  sentence  He  is  iviser  than  to  believe  it,  tJian 
seems  to  be  a  preposition  whose  object  is  the  phrase  to 
believe  it,  the  whole  phrase,  than  to  believe  it,  being  ad- 
verbial and  modifying  wiser. 

Like  and  As.  As  is  in  some  cases  prepositional  in  the 
same  way  as  than.  In  strict  accordance  with  the  best 
usage,  as  is  a  conjunction  corresponding  to  the  preposition 
like. 

EXAMPLE.     Do  as  I  do.     Be  like  me. 

In  some  localities  like  is  used  as  a  conjunction,  as  in 
the  sentence  Do  like  I  do ;  but  such  an  expression  is  not 
elegant  English,  and  it  is  much  better  to  say  Do  as  I  do. 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold. 

In  this  sentence  either  like  is  a  conjunction,  showing 
the  relation  of  an  adverbial  clause  (the  predicate  must  be 
supplied)  to  a  predicate  verb,  or  came  is  a  copulative 
verb,  and  like  a  preposition  introducing  a  phrase  used  as 
an  attribute. 

I  do  not  know  whether  he  goes  or  not. 

Whether  —  or  are  correlative  conjunctions;  but  whether 
is  subordinate,  showing  the  relation  of  the  adverbial  clause 
to  its  principal ;  whereas  or  is  coordinate,  giving  a  choice 
between  the  two  parts  of  the  compound  subordinate  clause. 


264  FINE   POINTS  OF  ANALYSIS 

In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  supply  another  verb,  which 
not  modifies.  Goes  or  does  not  go. 

That  varies  as  much  in  its  use  as  any  word  in  the  lan- 
guage. In  the  sentence,  Cursed  be  /,  that  I  obeyed  him, 
that  means  because. 

That  used  as  a  relative  in  some  cases  takes  the  place  of 
the  phrase  at  which,  and  is  used  adverbially. 

EXAMPLE.     He  came  at  the  time  that  I  expected  him. 

This  means  at  which  I  expected  him,  or  when  I  expected  him. 

I  will  go  because  you  wish  it. 
Because  performs  no  office  within  the  subordinate  clause. 

I  will  go  lest  he  be  angry. 

Here  lest  performs  a  negative  office  within  the  subor- 
dinate clause.  (I  will  go  that  he  be  not  angry.)  But  lest 
may  be  almost  synonymous  with  that. 

EXAMPLE.     I  fear  lest  [that]  you  should  fall. 

The  use  of  except,  or  its  equivalent  unless,  as  a  sub- 
ordinate conjunction  seems  to  make  it  possible  to  dispense 
with  the  usual  asserter  and  with  a  negative. 

EXAMPLE.     Punish  him  unless  he  beg  too  hard. 
Without  unless,  this  would  read,  Punish  him  if  he  does  not  beg  too 
hard. 

EXAMPLE.     No  man  can  do  these  works  except  God  (should)  be 
with  him. 

Next,  like,  near,  may  be  adjectives  followed  by  phrases 
which  begin  with  to,  or  may  be  prepositions  where  used 
without  to. 

EXAMPLE.     I  was  near  to  him. 
I  was  near  him. 


SPECIAL    USES   OF   WORDS  26$ 

143.     SPECIAL  USES   OF  WORDS. 

When  adjectives  denoting  quality  are  used  like  nouns, 
they  may  take  the  adjective  modifier  the. 
EXAMPLE.     The  beautiful  is  the  useful. 

They  may  also  take  adverbial  modifiers. 
EXAMPLE.    The  very  beautiful  is  often  the  extremely  useful. 
Beautiful  is   modified  by  the,  an  adjective  modifier,  and  very,  an 
adverbial  modifier. 

More   than    a    hundred    children's   children    rode   on   his 
knee. 

More  is  an  adjective  pronoun.  As  a  pronoun  it  is  sub- 
ject base;  as  an  adjective,  it  is. modified  by  the  adverbial 
phrase  than  a  hundred  children's  children. 

Participial  modifiers  are  difficult  to  classify  as  adjective 
or  adverbial. 

EXAMPLE.     He  stood  musing. 

Whether  musing  is  an  attribute,  stood  being  the  copula,  or  whether 
musing  is  adverbial,  stood  being  an  active  verb,  or  whether  stood  resem- 
bles an  auxiliary  in  use,  the  verb  being  derived  from  to  muse,  is  a 
matter  of  judgment  on  which  it  is  possible  to  differ  according  to  the 
exact  meaning  which  the  sentence  conveys  to  the  reader. 

Not  a  breath  upon  the  ocean. 

Not  is  an  adverb,  modifying  was  understood,  or  an 
adverb  modifying  a,  which  means  one. 

All  ready. 
In  this  expression  and  the  like,  all  is  an  adverb. 

An  adverb  is  frequently  the  object  of  a  preposition. 
EXAMPLES.     I  came  from  there.     Since  then. 
She  is  wiser  by  far. 


266  FINE  POINTS   OF  ANALYSIS 

Two  verbs  are  very  curiously  used,  apparently  on  their 
way  to  becoming  auxiliaries  with  their  usual  meanings 
quite  changed. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  to  go. 
I  have  to  go. 

By  this  use  of  am  (and  the  other  forms  of  to  be),  followed 
by  an  infinitive  whose  sign  remains  (to),  the  meaning 
appointed  or  intended  is  conveyed. 

By  this  use  of  have  (similar  construction),  must  is  implied. 


The  progressive  form  of  the  verb  go  used  before  the 
infinitive  of  another  verb  indicates  futurity. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  going  to  write  to  you  soon. 
He  is  going  to  buy  my  house. 
They  are  going  to  have  a  picnic  here  next  week. 

The  progressive  forms  of  the  two  verbs  come  and  go  may 
represent  either  present  or  future  time. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  going  to  Philadelphia,     (am  now  on  my  way) 
I  am  going  to  a  party  next  Friday. 
The  train  is  now  coming  toward  us  at  full  speed. 
The  spring  is  coming ;  it  will  soon  be  here. 

It  rains.  It  hails. 

//  snows.  It  sleets. 

//  blows  great  guns  to-night. 

The  pronoun  used  as  subject  of  these  sentences  has  no 
antecedent.  The  verbs  end  in  s  because  the  subject  is 
third  person  singular  in  form.  Verbs  which  are  thus 
used  with  a  subject  indefinite  in  meaning  are  sometimes 
called  impersonal  verbs. 


CHAPTER   XIX.  — IDIOMS. 

144.     IDIOMS. 

It  has  been  said  (p.  8)  that  an  idiom  is  a  form  of 
expression  peculiar  to  the  language  in  which  it  occurs. 
Since,  however,  languages  are  more  or  less  closely  related, 
it  follows  that  several  languages  may  have  an  idiom  in 
common  which  belonged  to  their  common  parent  language. 
Any  form  or  use  of  language  which  cannot  be  explained 
by  the  laws  of  grammar  is  called  an  idiom. 

Idiomatic  expressions  have  several  sources  which  are 
easy  to  detect  in  the  idioms  to  which  they  give  rise ; 
but  since  it  is  possible  to  lay  bare  the  entire  history  of  but 
few,  and  since  many  have  come  into  existence  through 
more  than  one  cause,  it  is  not  possible  to  classify  and 
explain  all  such  expressions. 

In  some  cases  the  economical  tendency  of  the  language 
has  shown  itself  in  the  dropping  out  of  words,  thus  leaving 
an  abridgment,  often  unexplained,  because  the  omitted 
element  is  lost  sight  of. 

EXAMPLE.     I  will  go  if  possible. 

If  possible  follows  no  analogy  of  our  language.  We  do 
not  usually  introduce  adjectives  by  pure  subordinate  con- 
junctions, but  in  this  case  it  is  easily  seen  that  both  subject 
and  predicate  of  a  former  subordinate  clause  have  been 
omitted  :  /  will  go  if  it  is  possible. 

A  form  of  inflection,  once  common,  but  now  generally 
obsolete,  may  create  an  idiom. 

EXAMPLE.     Needs  must  when  circumstances  drive. 

267 


268  IDIOMS 

One  must,  of  necessity,  when  circumstances  drive.  An  old  possessive 
form,  meaning  of  need,  has  become  the  subject  where  it  was  formerly  an 
adverbial  modifier. 

Frequently  an  idiomatic  expression  is  caused  by  the 
union  of  several  ideas  formerly  expressed  by  as  many 
separate  words,  the  relation  of  which  has  been  obliterated 
by  constant  use. 

EXAMPLE.     To  stand  by. 

Had  this  union  of  thought  occurred  before  the  language 
was  printed,  the  ivords  also  would  have  been  united.  As 
it  is,  the  expression  is  idiomatic. 

The  word  already  was  thus  formed  long  ago.  The  word 
alright  is,  perhaps,  in  process  of  formation,  but  is  not  yet 
accepted. 

A  verb  may  be  combined  with  an  adverb,  a  preposition, 
or  both,  the  whole  expression  conveying  a  meaning  far 
removed  from  that  which  an  exposition  of  the  grammatical 
relations  of  the  words  would  suggest. 

EXAMPLES.     To  get  rid  of.  To  stand  up  to. 

To  do  away  with.  To  carry  on. 

To  fix  up.  To  get  on  with. 

To  hold  on.  To  lead  off. 

To  bring  up.  To  keep  up. 

To  have  to  do  with.  To  head  off. 

To  give  up.  To  burn  up. 

To  take  up.  To  stand  out. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  these  accepted 
idioms  and  such  vulgarisms  as  to  keep  company  ivith,  to  go 
with,  to  knuckle  under,  to  let  on,  and  the  like.  Doubtless 
many  combinations  now  considered  idioms  were  first  used 
as  slang,  and,  being  found  to  convey  a  meaning  not  other- 
wise so  well  expressed,  were  accepted  as  correct. 

EXAMPLE.     To  hold  on  (figurative  use). 


IDIOMS  269 

A  currently  accepted  custom,  though  apparently  illogical, 
may  give  rise  to  an  idiomatic  expression. 

EXAMPLE.  Good  usage  sanctions  the  sentence  /  went  everywhere 
else,  but  condemns  /  went  every  place  else ;  yet  the  former  is  logically 
a  less  correct  expression,  since  else  means  other,  and  is  adjective  in 
nature,  as  is  every  also  :  / went  every  other  place.  The  use  of  every- 
where, then,  is  idiomatic. 

So,  also,  wherever  else  means  whatever  other  place. 

Though  idioms  are  troublesome  when  met  with  in  analyz- 
ing, as  they  fail  to  follow  the  rules  laid  down  by  gramma- 
rians, it  is  a  mistake  to  consider  their  use  as  faults  in  style, 
or  defects  in  a  language.  A  language  full  of  idioms  is  apt 
to  be  strong  and  expressive.  A  good  writer  is  idiomatic 
in  style. 

It  is  not  possible  to  catalogue  all  the  idioms  in  a  lan- 
guage like  ours.  What  one  person  regards  as  an  idiom, 
another,  with  a  deeper  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 
language,  or  with  a  broader  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
universal  grammar,  will  be  able  to  account  for. 

A  few  of  the  prominent  idioms  of  our  language  will  be 
mentioned  here. 

The  shortening  of  an  infinitive  clause  by  the  omission  of 
the  infinitive  gives  rise  to  an  idiomatic  expression  involving 
the  apparently  transitive  use  of  an  intransitive  verb. 

EXAMPLES.     He  worked  himself  [to  be]  weary. 
He  danced  his  feet  [to  be]  tired. 

In  the  first  example  above,  the  infinitive  clause  is  the 
abridgment  of  the  clause  iintil  he  was  weary. 

The  expression  He  worked  his  fingers  to  the  bone  is 
still  more  idiomatic. 

Less  plainly  idiomatic,  but  somewhat  similar,  are  /  will 
see  thee  \to  be~\  a  warrior,  and  /  make  the  book  [to  be~]  his. 


2/0  IDIOMS 

The  idiom  He  sat  him  down  is  accepted,  though  sat  is 
intransitive,  and  him  should  be  himself ;  but  /  bougJit  me 
a  dress  is  not  correct,  though  me,  like  the  correct  form 
myself,  is  plainly  explainable  as  indirect  object  of  the 
transitive  verb  bought. 

Such  an  expression  as  It  feels  heavier  than  usual  may 
arise  from  omissions  from  It  feels  heavier  than  is  usual, 
or  from  //  feels  heavier  than  it  usually  feels,  or  from  It 
feels  heavier  than  it  is  usual  for  it  to  feel. 

That  book  of  mine  is  explained  to  mean  That  book  of  my 
books ;  but  That  head  of  mine  or  That  tongue  of  mine 
cannot  be  thus  explained,  for  no  one  has  two  heads  or 
two  tongues. 

There  are  some  very  remarkable  idiomatic  uses  of  the 
articles.  A  great  many,  meaning  a  great  number  of,  is  more 
easily  explainable  than  full  many  a  gem  ;  and  the  which  is 
another  singular  case. 

An  ordinary  intransitive  verb  is  made  to  seem  transitive 
by  the  omission  of  a  preposition.  I  go  the  errand  means 
I  go  on  the  errand.  Trip  it  lightly  is  transitive  in  appear- 
ance, though  the  indefinite  it  is  a  very  vague  object. 

There,  used  to  introduce  a  sentence,  and  followed  by  the 
predicate  and  then  the  subject,  is  called  an  expletive,  and 
its  use  is  idiomatic.  In  interrogative  sentences  this  exple- 
tive occurs  in  the  midst  of  the  sentence. 

EXAMPLES.     There  will  come  a  time. 
What  there  is,  is  needed. 
What  is  there  here  ? 

From  the  old  participial  form  agone  comes  the  modern 
idiomatic  use  of  ago.  He  went  an  hour  ago  means  He  went 
an  agone  hour. 

So  is  an  adverb  whose  use  is  sometimes  almost  pronom- 


IDIOMS  271 

inal.      It   may  stand  for   an   expression  previously  used, 
or  for  a  statement  implied  from  what  precedes. 

EXAMPLES.     I  am  not  rich,  but  hope  to  be  so. 

I  walked  slowly,  and  Alice  did  so  too. 

He  may  be  rich,  but  I  do  not  think  so. 
In  the  last  example  so  stands  for  he  is  rich. 

He  being  ill,  they  sent  for  a  doctor. 

The  participial  clause  used  as  an  adverbial  element 
(without  a  preposition)  consists  of  a  substantive  united 
with  a  participle,  usually  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence. 

In  English,  this  construction  is  called  the  nomina- 
tive absolute.  When  a  noun  is  employed  the  case  is 
immaterial,  for  nouns  do  not  change  their  form  except 
for  possessive  use ;  but  the  pronoun  so  used  must  be 
nominative. 

It  is  to  you  that  I  speak. 

This  means,  //  is  you  to  whom  I  speak,  or,  better,  The  one 
to  whom  I  speak,  is  you,  or,  more  simply,  /  speak  to  you. 

It  was  there  that  I  saw  him. 

This  means  /  saw  him  there.  The  use  of  that  is 
idiomatic. 

She  wept  all  night  long. 

Long  is  adverbial,  modifying  wept,  and  is  modified  by 
all  night  used  idiomatically. 


CHAPTER   XX.— SENTENCES   FOR   ANALYSIS. 

145. 

1.  Toward  evening  Columbus  returned  to  his  ships,  accompanied  by 

many  of  the  islanders  in  their  boats,  which  they  called  canoes, 
and  which,  though  rudely  formed  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  single 
tree,  they  rowed  with  surprising  dexterity. 

2.  It  was  small  tyranny  for  a  respectable  wind  to  go  wreaking  its  ven- 

geance on  such  poor  creatures  as  the  fallen  leaves. 

3.  Toil  on,  poor  heart,  unceasingly ; 
And  thou  shalt  find  thy  dream  to  be 
A  truth  and  noonday  light  to  thee. 

4.  But  peaceful  was  the  night, 
Wherein  the  Prince  of  Light 

'  His  reign  of  peace  upon  the  earth  began ; 
The  winds,  with  wonder  whist, 
Smoothly  the  waters  kissed, 

Whispering  new  joys  to  the  mild  Ocean, 
Who  now  hath  quite  forgot  to  rave, 
While  birds  of  calm  sit  brooding  on  the  charmed  wave. 

5.  On  the  first  day  of  the  session  of  Parliament,  the  book  thus  dis- 

gracefully obtained  was  laid  on  the  table  of  Lords  by  the  Earl 
of  Sandwich,  whom  the  Duke  of  Bedford's  interest  had  made 
Secretary  of  State. 

6.  Civil  war  raging  in  England,  Bunyan  enlisted  in  the  parliamentary 

army  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 

7.  There  was  a  youth,  a  stripling  of  twenty-four  years  of  age,  of  diffi- 

dent and  retiring  manners,  who  ventured  to  take  up  the  gantlet 
that  the  first  college  in  Europe  had  thrown  down. 

8.  He  had  received  previous  information  from  the  family  physician 

regarding  the  lad,  with  respect  to  whose  family,  fortune,  and 
personal  merits  the  honest  doctor  had  spoken  with  no  small 
enthusiasm. 

9.  Poor  little  silent  flowers  !     What  business  had  you  to  show  your 

red  cheeks  in  this  dingy  place? 
272 


SENTENCES  FOR  ANALYSIS  2/3 

10.  "Take  my  counsel,  Altamont,11  Strong  said  gravely,  "and  mind 

how  you  deal  with  that  man." 

11.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  Addison's  humor,  of  his  sense  of  the 

ludicrous,  of  his  power  of  awakening  that  sense  in  others,  and 
of  drawing  mirth  from  incidents  which  occur  every  day? 

12.  "  Barere,"  said  he  to  O'Meara,  "  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  man 

of  talent,  but  I  did  not  find  him  so.11 

13.  Is  the  love  of  approbation  a   stronger  motive  than  the  love  of 

wealth  ? 

14.  Springing  from  the  humblest  ranks  in  life,  and  unaided  by  the 

adventitious  supports  of  family  or  wealth,  Mr.  Lincoln  reached 
his  exalted  position  by  the  strength  of  his  will,  the  power  of  his 
intellect,  and  the  honesty  of  his  heart. 

15.  The  emigrants  who  came  at  different  periods  to  occupy  the  terri- 

tory now  covered  by  the  American  Union,  differed  from  each 
other  in  many  respects ;  their  aim  was  not  the  same,  and  they 
governed  themselves  on  different  principles. 

1 6.  America  is  the  only  country  in  which  it  has  been  possible  to  wit- 

ness the  natural  and  tranquil  growth  of  society,  and  where  the 
influence  exercised  on  the  future  condition  of  states  by  their 
origin  is  clearly  distinguishable. 

17.  A  violent  outcry  was  raised,  not  against  that  part  of  his  conduct 

which  really  deserved  severe  condemnation,  but  against  a  step  in 
which  we  can  see  nothing  to  censure. 

1 8.  When  the  citizens  learned  that  he  had  been  sent  for  from  Somer- 

setshire, that  he  had  been  closeted  with  the  King  at  Richmond, 
and  that  he  was  to  be  the  first  minister,  they  had  been  in  trans- 
ports of  joy. 

19.  O  Italy,  how  beautiful  thou  art ! 

Yet  I  could  weep,  for  thou  art  lying,  alas  ! 

Low  in  the  dust ;  and  they  who  come  admire  thee 

As  we  admire  the  beautiful  in  death. 

20.  While  stands  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  stand ; 
When  falls  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  fall ; 
And  when  Rome  falls  —  the  world. 

21.  And  this  strange  and  ancient  city, 

In  that  reign  of  his  truth  and  love, 
Shall  be  what  it  seems  in  the  twilight, 
The  type  of  that  city  above, 
p.  c.  GRAM.  —  1 8 


2/4  SENTENCES  FOR  ANALYSIS 

22.  A  multitude  had  assembled  there,  for  as  yet  military  spectacles 

were  novelties,  and  the  camp  was  full  of  visitors,  men,  women, 
and  children,  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 

23.  Here  we  were  provided  with  comfortable  quarters  in  a  large  log 

house  belonging  to  a  fur  trader,  of  which  we  had  hardly  taken 
possession,  when  the  door  was  thrown  open  and  several  fur- 
clad  figures  rushed  in. 

24.  What  has  poor  Ireland  done,  Mother, 

What  has  poor  Ireland  done 
That  the  world  looks  on  and  sees  her  starve, 
Perishing  one  by  one? 

25.  These  writings  which  I   have  hitherto  published  have  been  little 

less  than  visions  which  impersonate  my  own  apprehensions  of 
the  beautiful  and  the  just. 

26.  And  the  soul  of  the  maiden,  between  the  stars  and  the  fireflies, 
Wandered  alone,  and  she  cried,  "  O  Gabriel !  O  my  beloved  ! 
Art  thou  so  near  unto  me,  and  yet  I  cannot  behold  thee  ? " 

27.  And  now  depart !  and  when 

Thy  heart  is  heavy,  and  thine  eyes  are  dim, 
Lift  up  thy  prayer  beseechingly  to  Him 

Who,  from  the  tribes  of  men, 
Selected  thee  to  feel  his  chastening  rod  ; 
Depart  !  O  leper  !  and  forget  not  God  ! 

28.  "  What  think  you,"  said  Washington,  "  if  we  should  retreat  to  the 

back  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  would  the  Pennsylvanians  support 
us?" 

29.  The  soul  of  music  slumbers  in  the  shell, 

Till  waked  and  kindled  by  the  master's  spell ; 

And  feeling  hearts  —  touch  them  but  rightly  —  pour 

A  thousand  melodies  unheard  before  ! 

30.  Let  us  rejoice  that  neither  of  them  threatens  to  return  to  vex  either 

the  soil  of  the  West  or  the  soul  of  our  government. 

31.  The  story  of  the  ape  and  the  walnuts  is  one  of  the  most  extraor- 

dinary I  ever  read ;  but  what  a  wretched  limit  of  intellect  does 
it  imply  to  be  cited  as  an  instance  of  extraordinary  sagacity  ! 

32.  "  How  many  are  you  then,"  said  I, 

"  If  they  two  are  in  heaven  ?  " 
Quick  was  the  little  maid's  reply, 
UO  master  !  we  are  seven." 


SENTENCES  £OR  ANALYSIS  2?$ 

33.  Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky, 
Thou  dost  not  bite  so  nigh 

As  benefits  forgot ; 
Though  thou  the  waters  warp, 
Thy  sting  is  not  so  sharp 

As  friends  remembered  not. 

34.  O  how  can  beauty  master  the  most  strong, 
And  simple  truth  subdue  avenging  wrong ! 

35.  Hail,  beauteous  stranger  of  the  grove  ! 

Thou  messenger  of  spring! 
Now  heaven  repairs  thy  rural  seat, 
And  woods  thy  welcome  sing. 

36.  Slacken  not  sail  yet  at  inlet  or  island  ; 

Straight  for  the  beacon  steer  —  straight  for  the  highland ; 
Crowd  all  thy  canvas  on,  cut  through  the  foam ; 
Christian  !  cast  anchor  now  —  heaven  is  thy  home. 

37.  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and  take  for 

granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse ;  but  to  weigh  and 
consider. 

38.  "  Dear  friend,"  she  said,  "Why  are  you  so  sad  ? 
Am  I  in  such  great  danger  ?  " 

39.  Heap  on  more  wood  !  the  wind  is  chill ; 
But  let  it  whistle  as  it  will, 

We'll  keep  our  Christmas  merry  still. 

40.  Beneath   this   discipline   a  formidable   people   had   been  formed, 

fierce  hearts  in  strong  bodies,  intolerant  of  restraint,  longing  for 
violent  deeds,  born  for  constant  warfare  because  steeped  in 
permanent  warfare,  heroes  and  robbers,  who,  as  an  escape  from 
their  solitude,  plunged  into  adventures,  and  went,  that  they  might 
conquer  a  country  or  win  Paradise,  to  Sicily,  to  Portugal,  to 
Spain,  to  Livonia,  to  Palestine,  to  England. 

41.  Whether  the  author  knows  it  or  not,  he  writes  in  order  to  exhibit 

his  ideas  of  nature  and  of  life ;  and  the  characters  which  he 
fashions,  like  the  events  which  he  arranges,  only  serve  to  bring 
to  light  the  dim  creative  conception  which  raises  and  combines 
them. 

The   pupils   should    analyze    sentences  from  any  good 
piece  of  literature  used  in  the  school. 


PART  V.  — ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES. 

CHAPTER  XXI.— ENGLISH   DERIVATIVES. 
146.— INFLECTIONS   AND   COMPOUND   WORDS. 

Write  the  declension  of  the  noun  hen.  What  are  the 
four  forms  of  that  noun  ?  Which  is  the  simplest  form  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  singular  formed;  the  ordinary 
plural ;  the  possessive  plural  ? 

Write  the  comparison  of  the  adjective  tall.  How  is  the 
comparative  formed  ;  the  superlative  ? 

Write  the  entire  declension  of  the  pronoun  he. 

Write  the  inflectional  conjugation  of  the  verb  talk. 

The  inflection  of  a  word  is  the  changing  of  its  forms  to  indicate  differ- 
ences in  its  meanings  or  uses. 

The  noun,  the  pronoun,  the  verb,  and  some  adjectives 
and  adverbs  are  the  only  parts  of  speech  in  our  language 
that  are  inflected. 

Write  a  comparison  of  the  adjective  beautiful,  using  the 
adverbs  more  and  most. 

Write  in  full  the  present  perfect  tense  of  the  verb  to 
speak.  What  auxiliary  indicates  the  time  of  the  action  ? 

In  some  cases  two  words  are  combined  to  make  one 
word,  called  a  compound  word,  the  two  parts  being  united 
by  a  hyphen. 

EXAMPLES,     labor-saving         looking-glass         school-teacher 

276 


INFLECTIONS  AND    COMPOUND    WORDS  2/7 

After  long  use  in  this  way  the  hyphen  may  be  omitted, 
the  two  original  words  uniting  more  closely  to  make  one. 

EXAMPLES,     lookout  overmuch  railway 

masterpiece  pushpin  forthcoming 

One  of  the  words  thus  united  may  be  altered  in  spelling, 
usually  by  the  dropping  of  letters. 

EXAMPLES,     faith  +  full  =  faithful, 
god  +  like  =  godly. 

These  processes  of  word  combining  and  word  blending 
are  constantly  going  on.  Prepositions  like  into  and  upon 
are  simple  unions  ;  expressions  like  I'd  and  can  t  show  the 
tendency  to  blend.  We  call  Pd  a  contraction,  and  sepa- 
rate it  into  a  pronoun  and  a  verb ;  but  cannot  is  called  a 
verb;  though  it  has  absorbed  an  adverb. 

If  our  language  were  not  printed,  these  changes  would 
be  more  rapid.  Most  of  those  which  have  occurred  took 
place  before  printed  English  existed.  Most  of  the  inflec- 
tions of  our  words  are  results  of  word  blending. 

The  s  added  to  make  the  third  person  singular  of  most 
verbs,  and  the  ed  or  d  added  to  make  the  past  form 
(page  1 58)  are  the  remnants  of  words  formerly  added.  The 
plural  s  or  es,  the  possessive  's,  and  perhaps  the  er  and 
est  of  adjectives  are  traces  of  former  word  combinations. 

Thus,  the  inflection  of  a  word  is  frequently  the  sign  of 
former  word  combinations  which  expressed  variations  of 
meaning  or  relation. 

oversee  popgun 

Each  of  these  words  is  formed  by  uniting  two  English 
words.  Tell  in  each  case  which  of  the  original  words  is 
the  principal  and  which  the  modifier. 


2/8  ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

true  truth  untruthful 

untrue  untruth  untruthfully 

truly  truthful  truthfulness 

Many  of  the  syllables  united  with  true  are  now  merely 
syllables,  and  not  whole  words.  Fnl  is  evidently  an  abbre- 
viation of  full ;  ly  is  a  still  greater  abbreviation  of  like ; 
in  ness  and  nn  we  have  lost  the  feeling  that  a  word  exists 
at  all ;  th  is  not  even  a  syllable. 

The  word  to  which  these  words,  abbreviated  words,  sylla- 
bles, or  letters  are  added  is  called  the  root,  or  the  primitive 
word. 

Which  addition  is  placed  before  the  primitive  word  in 
the  list  above  ?  It  is  called  a  prefix. 

fix  =  place 
pre  =  before 

Which  of  these  syllables  is  the  root  ?  Which  is  the 
prefix  ? 

Which  of  the  additions  are  placed  after  the  root  in  the 
foregoing  list  ?  Such  an  added  syllable  or  combination 
of  letters  is  called  a  suffix.  Analyze  the  word  suffix. 

The  words  formed  by  adding  prefixes  or  suffixes  to  roots 
are  called  derivative  words. 

A  primitive  word  may  have  but  one  syllable  added  to 
it,  as  man  +  ly;  or  it  may  have  two,  or  even  more  such 
syllables  added  at  one  time,  as  nn  man  fy,  nn  man  li  ness. 
Frequently  the  primitive  word  may  have  a  number  of 
derivatives  formed  by  the  addition  of  different  prefixes  and 
suffixes. 

EXAMPLE.     Primitive  word,  part  —  divide. 

Derivatives  :     i.    parter,  one  who  parts,  or  divides. 
2.    part/«£-,  dividing,  separating. 


INFLECTIONS  AND    COMPOUND    WORDS  2/Q 

3.  part/K,  in  part,  not  wholly. 

4.  part/taw,   the  act   of   separating,   or    that   which 

separates. 

5.  part/Wzte,  denoting  a  part. 

6.  depart,  separate  from. 

7.  dfepartwr*,  act  of  departing. 

8.  <£parb»*«/,  a  division. 

9.  departmental,  relating  to  a  department. 

True  —  faithful,  genuine,  honest. 

Untrue  —  not  faithful,  not  genuine,  not  honest. 

A  prefix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  and 
united  with  it  to  vary  its  meaning. 

Teach  —  instruct. 

Teacher  —  one  who  instructs. 

A  suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  at  the  end  of  a  word  and  united 
with  it  to  vary  its  meaning. 

Safe  means  secure,  but  by  adding  the  prefix  nn  to  it, 
there  is  formed  the  word  unsafe,  which  means  not  secure. 
Noon  means  the  middle  of  the  day,  but  by  the  addition  of 
the  prefix  fore,  we  form  a  word  which  means  before  the 
middle  of  the  day.  (Forenoon.}  Obey  means  submit  to, 
comply  with,  but  when  the  prefix  dis  is  added  to  it,  we 
have  the  word  disobey,  which  means  not  submit  to,  not 
comply  with. 

The  sense  of  a  word  is  usually  changed  by  the  use  of  a 
prefix. 


A  word  may  be  formed  by  a  combination  of  an  English 
word  with  a  word  or  syllable  from  some  foreign  language. 

EXAMPLE.     Rebuild — from  re,  the  Latin  prefix  meaning  again,  and 
build,  an  English  word. 


280  ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

Words  derived  from  other  English  words,  by  a  combination  with  words 
or  syllables  either  English  or  from  foreign  sources,  are  called  English 
derivatives. 

According  to  their  formation,  then,  words  are  divided 
into  two  general  classes,  primitive  and  derivative. 

The  primitive  words  of  a  language  are  the  simplest 
forms  of  the  words  in  that  language,  but  they  may  them- 
selves be  derived  from  some  other  language. 

EXAMPLE.  The  word  elect  is  a  primitive  word  in  English,  but  is 
itself  derived  from  the  Latin  word  electus.  English 
derivatives  are  made  from  this  word  by  the  addition 
of  certain  syllables,  as  elector,  electz^. 

Derivative  words  are  those  formed  from  primitive 
words  :  — 

1.  By  uniting  two  primitives. 
EXAMPLES,     postman 

breakfast 
popgun 

2.  By  adding  significant  syllables. 

EXAMPLE.  The  primitive  word  write  may  have  the  syllable  re  pre- 
fixed, making  it  mean  to  write  again ;  or  it  may  have 
er  suffixed,  making  it  mean  one  who  writes. 

147.     PREFIXES. 

The  principal  prefixes  used  in  forming  English  deriva- 
tive words  are :  — 

a  —  which  means  in  or  on  abed 

al  —  all  almighty 

be  —  to  make,  or  made  becalm 

con,  co  —  with  or  together  cooperate,  copartner 

de  —  down,  away,  from  deodorize 

dis  —  not  displeasure 


PREFIXES 


28l 


en,  em  —  in  or  on 

ex  —  out,  or  out  of,  or  formerly 
fore  —  before  (time  or  -place) 
forth 

in,  il,  im,  ir,  —  not 

inter  —  between 

mis  —  wrong,  or  wrongly 

non  —  ;/#/ 

post  —  after 

pre  —  before 

re  —  again 

super  —  above,  over 

un  —  ;/0/,  or  ^<?  reverse  of 

semi  ~ 


enlighten 
ex-president 
forewarned 
forthcoming 

( inappropriate 

1  impossible 
international 
misbehave 
nonessential 
postscript 
prehistoric 
rewrite 

superabundant 
unforgiving 
semicircle 


Exercise. 

Give  the  prefix  used  in  each  of  the  following  words,  and  tell  how  the 
meaning  of  the  word  is  affected  by  its  use  :  — 

33.  preengaged 

34.  depress 

35.  always 

36.  depart 

37.  afoot 

38.  disguise 

39.  entangle 

40.  foretaste 

41.  coordinate 

42.  immature 

43.  misbehavior 

44.  nonresident 

45.  preeminent 

46.  interocean 

47.  supernatural 

48.  impolite 


I. 

coexist 

17- 

prefix 

2. 

ashore 

18. 

rebuild 

3- 

becripple 

19. 

afield 

4- 

conjoin 

20. 

bemean 

5- 

displease 

21. 

descend 

6. 

embody 

22. 

disobey 

7- 

express 

23- 

ex-governor 

8. 

foreordain 

24. 

empower 

9- 

forthcoming 

25. 

foretell 

10. 

inconvenient 

26. 

forthwith 

u. 

interstate 

27. 

inconsiderable 

12. 

misunderstood 

28. 

interlace 

13- 

nonconductor 

29. 

misconstrue 

14. 

postnuptial 

30. 

nonsense 

IS- 

bemoan 

31- 

renumber 

16. 

dismember 

32- 

missent 

282 


ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 


Add  a  proper  prefix  to  each  of  the  following  words,  and  tell  in  what 
respect  the  sense  of  the  word  is  changed  by  its  use  :  — 


I. 

known 

ii. 

merit 

21. 

conformist 

2. 

historic 

12. 

please 

22. 

bark 

3- 

pronounce 

13- 

communicated 

23- 

patient 

4- 

circle 

14- 

coming 

24. 

existent 

5- 

tomb 

15- 

consistent 

25. 

foot 

6T 

judge 

16. 

produce 

26 

circular 

7- 

secure 

17- 

apply 

27. 

view 

8. 

resident 

18. 

qualified 

28. 

see 

9- 

tell 

19. 

mortal 

29. 

wail 

10. 

abundant 

20. 

sleep 

30 

believe 

The  gender  of  a  noun  is  sometimes  indicated  by  prefix- 


ing a  syllable  to  it. 

EXAMPLES.  MASCULINE. 

he-goat 
manservant 


FEMININE. 

she-goat 
maidservant 


148.     SUFFIXES. 

Wise  is  an  adjective  meaning  sage,  discreet,  but  the 
addition  of  the  suffix  dom  varies  its  meaning  to  the  quality 
of  being  wise,  knowledge ;  wisdom  is  a  noun. 

Ly  added  to  the  adjective  wise  varies  its  meaning  to 
prudently,  in  a  wise  manner ;  ivisely  is  an  adverb. 

A  suffix  usually  varies  the  meaning  of  the  word,  and 
frequently  changes  it  to  another  part  of  speech. 

The  noun  bond,  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix  age,  becomes  the  noun 
bondage. 

The  adjective  faithful,  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix  ness,  becomes 
the  noun  faithfulness. 

The  verb  paint,  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix  er,  becomes  the  noun 
Painter. 

The  noun  wood,  with  the  suffix  en  added,  becomes  the  adjective 
wooden. 


SUFFIXES  283 

The  verb  laugh,  with  the  suffix  able  added,  becomes  the  adjective 
laughable. 

The  adjective  good,  with  the  suffix  ly  added,  becomes  the  adjective 
goodly. 

Nouns  may  be  formed  from  other  nouns,  from  adjec- 
tives, and  from  verbs. 

The  noun  goodness  is  formed  from  the  adjective  good.  Explain  in 
what  way. 

How  is  the  noun  lodging  formed  from  a  verb  ? 
How  is  the  noun  boyhood  formed  from  a  noun  ? 

Adjectives  may  be  formed  from  nouns,  from  verbs,  and 
sometimes  from  adjectives. 

Explain  the  formation  of  the  adjective  womanly  ;  of  the  adjectives 
woven,  different,  yellowish. 

Adverbs  may  be  formed  from  adjectives,  and  rarely 
from  nouns. 

The  adjective  brief,  with  the  suffix  ly  added,  becomes  the  adverb 
briefly  ;  and  the  noun  _/>#;•/  in  like  manner  becomes  partly. 


Most  derivative  adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  by 
the  addition  of  ly. 

Give  some  examples  of  adverbs  thus  formed. 

Verbs  may  be  formed  from  nouns  and  from  adjectives. 

The  noun  terror,  with  the  suffix  ize  added,  becomes  the  verb 
terrorize. 

The  adjective  black,  with  the  suffix  en  added,  becomes  the  verb 
blacken. 

Many  masculine  nouns  are  made  feminine  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  suffix,  or  by  a  change  in  the  last  syllable.  Some- 
times alterations  of  spelling  also  occur  within  the  word. 


284  ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

EXAMPLES. 


MASCULINE. 

FEMININE. 

MASCULINE. 

FEMININE. 

host 
baron 

hostess 
baroness 

shepherd 
hero 

shepherdess 
heroine 

emperor 
abbot 
actor 

empress 
abbess 
actress 

administrator 
prior 
benefactor 

administratrix 
prioress 
benefactress 

sorcerer 

sorceress 

heir 

heiress 

The  following  noun  has  a  masculine  form    apparently 
derived  from  the  feminine. 

FEMININE.  MASCULINE. 

widow  widower 

Note  the  following  rules  for  the  spelling  of  derivative 
words :  — 

I.  Final   e  (if   preceded   by    a    consonant)   is    usually 
dropped  on  adding  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

EXAMPLES,  come,  coming 
tame,  tamable 
fame,  famous 

But  words  ending  with  ge  or  ce  retain  the  e  before  able, 
ably,  or  ous. 

EXAMPLES,     changeable,  peaceably 

II.  Final  e  is  usually  retained  on  adding  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  consonant. 

EXAMPLES,  rude,  rudeness 
fine,  finely 

But  when  the  final  e  is  preceded  by  u  or  by  dg  it  is 
omitted. 

EXAMPLES,     true,  truly 

judge,  judgment 
abridge,  abridgment 


SUFFIXES  285 

III.  Final  y,  when  preceded  by  a   consonant,  is   gen- 
erally changed  to  i  on  the  addition  of  a  suffix. 

EXAMPLES,     beauty,  beautiful 
merry,  merrily 

But  if  the  suffix  itself  begins  with  i,  final  y  is  retained  to 
prevent  the  doubling  of  the  i. 

EXAMPLES,     try,  trying 
pity,  pitying 

In  the  case  of  a  few  words  ending  in  ie,  the  e  is  dropped, 
and  the  i  is  changed  to  7,  on  adding  ing. 

EXAMPLES,     die,  dying 
lie,  lying 
vie,  vying 

Final  y  is  in  a  few  cases  changed  to  e. 

EXAMPLES,     beauty,  beauteous 
plenty,  plenteous 

IV.  Final  yt  when   preceded   by  a   vowel,  is  retained 
before  a  suffix. 

EXAMPLES,    joy,  joyful 

boy,  boyhood 

V.  Words  of  one  syllable,  and  words  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  before  a  suffix 
beginning  with  a  vowel. 

EXAMPLES,    beg,  beggar 

abhor,  abhorrence 
rid,  riddance 

If  the  final  consonant  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
or  if  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  or  if  in  the 
derivative  the  accent  is  carried  back,  the  final  consonant 
is  not  doubled  before  a  suffix. 


286  ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

EXAMPLES,  moan,  moaning 
travel,  traveler 
confer,  conference 

The    suffixes  which    form    nouns   may  be    divided  into 
three  classes. 

a.  Those  which  mean  one  who  or  that  which  :  — 

an,  ian  cer  ist  ent 

ar  eer  er  ite 

ard  ier  ary  ive 

le  or  ant  ee 

b.  Those  which  mean  state  or  quality  of  being :  — 

age  ship  ure 

dom  acy  al 

ion  ance,  ence  ency 

ty,  ity  ry  ancy 

ment  mony  ism,  sm 

ness  tude,  ude  hood 

c.  Those  which  mean  little  or  diminutive :  — 

cle  en  kin 

cule  let  ling 

ie  ock 

Exercise. 

Add  a  noun  suffix  to  each  of  the  following  words,  and  give  the  mean- 
ing of  the  new  word  :  — 

1.  history  10.    man  19.   proceed 

2.  beg  ii.    depend  20.    bestow 

3-  duke  12.    Mormon  21.    restful 

4-  fellow  13.    act  22.    hill 

5.  mother  14.  allow  23.  Israel 

6.  engine  15.  lamb  24.  useful 

7.  scarce  16.  disturb  25.  Africa 

8.  animal  17.  friend  26.  slave 
9-  pay  1 8.  fruit  27.  relate 


al 

less 

ate 

an,  ian 

ive- 

ous 

ic,  ical 

iy 

en 

ary 

y 

ish 

ful 

ar 

er 

SUFFIXES  287 

The  suffixes  which  form  adjectives  are :  — 

ern,  erly 

able,  ible,  ble 

ed 

some 

ery 

Of  these,  able  (ible,  ble)  means  tJiat  may  be,  worthy  of ; 
ful  signifies  plenitude  ;  and  less  means  free  from,  without. 

Exercise. 

Add  an  adjective  suffix  to  each  of  the  following  words  :  — 

1.  person  7.  spirit  13.  venture 

2.  red  8.  respect  14.  drear 

3.  large  9.  endure  15.  snap 

4.  Europe  10.  granule  16.  angel 

5.  waste  11.  value  17.  toil 

6.  consul  12.  affection  18.  cloud 

The  suffixes  (meaning  to  make)  which  form  verbs  are  :  — 
en  fy,  ify  ate  ize,  ise 

The  suffixes  which  form  adverbs  are :  — 

ly,  ward,  wards  wise,  ways 

Exercise. 
Add  a  verb  suffix  to  each  of  the  following  words  :  — 

1.  white  4.    memory  7.   alien 

2.  character  5.    sign  8.    moral 

3.  broad  6.    origin  9.    glory 

Add  an  adverb  suffix  to  each  of  the  following  words  :  — 

1.  brave  4.    home  7.    true 

2.  in  5.    cross  8.    side 

3.  mere  6.    length  9.    truthful 


288  ENGLISH  DERIVATIVES 

149.    REVIEW. 

Exercise. 

Tell  what  suffix  has  been  added  to  each  of  the  following  words; 
what  part  of  speech  the  primitive  word  is  ;  and  what  part  of  speech  has 
been  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix :  — 

payee  auctioneer  inducement 

dependent  wharfage  guardianship 

lambkin  kingdom  animalcule 

absorbent  witty  wonderful 

writer  satirize  quicken 

effective  realize  lessen 

justly  justify  novelist 

corruption  superiority  actor 

astonishment  honestly  plantlet 

Mormonism  fortunate  globule 

wealthy  joyous  fertilize 

departure  pleasantly  instructive 

girlhood  European  northerly 

Form  five  nouns  from  nouns  ;  five  from  adjectives ;  five  from  verbs. 
Form  five  adjectives  from  nouns  ;  five  from  verbs  ;  five  from  adjectives. 
Form  five  verbs  from  nouns ;  five  from  adjectives.  Form  five  adverbs 
from  adjectives  ;  five  from  nouns. 

Exercise. 

Add  a  proper  suffix  to  each  of  the  following  words,  and  tell  what 
part  of  speech  has  been  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix :  — 

art  owner  might 

hope  real  loose 

create  profess  auction 

king  white  station 

commission  noise  wing 

judge  severe  grateful 

own  sign  parent 

duck  glory  post 

mercy  quick  mine 

boy  heart  instruct 


APPENDIX. 


1.     IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


PREDICATE  VERB  FORMS. 


PARTICIPIAL  FORMS. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PRES.  PART. 

PERF.  PART. 

abide 

abides 

abode 

abiding 

abode 

am 

is 

was 

being 

been 

arise 

arises 

arose 

arising 

arisen 

awake 

awakes 

awoke  * 

awaking 

awoke  * 

bear  (to  bring  \ 
forth}           J 

i 
-  bears 
i 

bore 

bearing 

(  born  (passive) 
(  borne  (active) 

bear  (carry} 

bears 

bore 

bearing 

borne 

beat 

beats 

beat 

beating 

j  beaten 

(  beat 

become 

becomes 

became 

becoming 

become 

befall 

befalls 

befell 

befalling 

befallen 

beget 

begets 

begot 

begetting 

j  begotten 

]     V 

(  begot 

begin 

begins 

began 

beginning 

begun 

behold 

beholds 

beheld 

beholding 

beheld 

bend 

bends 

bent* 

bending 

bent* 

bereave 

bereaves 

bereft  * 

bereaving 

bereft  * 

beseech 

beseeches 

besought 

beseeching 

besought 

bet 

bets 

bet* 

betting 

bet* 

bid 

bids 

j  bade 
(bid 

bidding 

(  bidden 

Hid 

bind 

binds 

bound 

binding 

bound 

bite 

bites 

bit 

biting 

(  bitten 
Hit 

bleed 

bleeds 

bled 

bleeding 

bled 

blend 

blends 

blent  * 

blending 

blent* 

bless 

blesses 

blest  * 

blessing 

blest  * 

*  The  regular  form  also  occurs. 

P.  C. 

GRAM.  —  19 

289 

290 


APPENDIX 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PRES.  PART. 

PERF.   PART. 

blow 

blows 

blew 

blowing 

blown 

break 

breaks 

broke 

breaking 

broken 

breed 

breeds 

bred 

breeding 

bred 

bring 

brings 

brought 

bringing 

brought 

build 

builds 

built 

building 

built 

burn 

burns 

burnt  * 

burning 

burnt  * 

burst 

bursts 

burst 

bursting 

burst 

buy 

buys 

bought 

buying 

bought 

cast 

casts 

cast 

casting 

cast 

catch 

catches 

caught 

catching 

caught 

chide 

chides 

chid 

chiding 

(  chidden 
(chid 

choose 

chooses 

chose 

choosing 

chosen 

cleave  (split) 

cleaves 

(  cleft 
(  clove 

cleaving 

(  cleft  * 
l  cloven 

cling 

clings 

clung 

clinging 

clung 

clothe 

clothes 

clad* 

clothing 

clad* 

come 

comes 

came 

coming 

come 

cost 

costs 

cost 

costing 

cost 

creep 

creeps 

crept 

creeping 

crept 

crow 

crows 

crew  * 

crowing 

crowed 

curse 

curses 

curst  * 

cursing 

curst  * 

cut 

cuts 

cut 

cutting 

cut 

dare 

dares 

durst  * 

daring 

dared 

deal 

deals 

dealt 

dealing 

dealt 

dig 

digs 

dug 

digging 

dug 

do 

does 

did 

doing 

done 

draw 

draws 

drew 

drawing 

drawn 

dream 

dreams 

dreamt  * 

dreaming 

dreamt  * 

dress 

dresses 

drest  * 

dressing 

drest* 

drink 

drinks 

drank 

drinking 

(  drunk 
(  drank 

drive 

drives 

drove 

driving 

driven 

dwell 

dwells 

dwelt  * 

dwelling 

dwelt  * 

eat 

eats 

ate 

eating 

eaten 

fall 

falls 

fell 

falling 

fallen 

feed 

feeds 

fed 

feeding 

fed 

feel 

feels 

felt 

feeling 

felt 

*  The  regular  form  also  occurs. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS 


291 


PRESENT. 


fight 

find 

flee 

fling 

fly 

forbear 

forget 

forsake 
freeze 

get 

gild 
gird 
give 

go 

grave 

grind 

grow 

hang 

have 

hear 

heave 

hew 

hide 

hit 

hold 

hurt 

keep 

kneel 

knit 

know 

lade 

lay 

lead 

lean 

leap 


PAST. 

PRES.  PART. 

PERF.  PART. 

fights 

fought 

fighting 

fought 

finds 

found 

•   finding 

found 

flees 

fled 

fleeing 

fled 

flings 

flung 

flinging 

flung 

flies 

flew 

flying 

flown 

forbears 

forbore 

forbearing 

forborne 

forgets 

forgot 

forgetting 

j  forgotten 
(  forgot 

forsakes 

forsook 

forsaking 

forsaken 

freezes 

froze 

freezing 

frozen 

gets 

got 

getting 

5  got 

(  gotten 

gilds 

gilt* 

gilding 

gilt* 

girds 

girt* 

girding 

girt* 

gives 

gave 

giving 

given 

goes 

went 

going 

gone 

graves 

graved 

graving 

graven  * 

grinds 

ground 

grinding 

ground 

grows 

grew 

growing 

grown 

hangs 

hung* 

hanging 

hung* 

has 

had 

having 

had 

hears 

heard 

hearing 

heard 

heaves 

hove  * 

heaving 

hove  * 

hews 

hewed 

hewing 

hewn  * 

hides 

hid 

hiding 

(  hidden 
Hid 

hits 

hit 

hitting 

hit 

holds 

held 

holding 

held 

hurts 

hurt 

hurting 

hurt 

keeps 

kept 

keeping 

kept 

kneels 

knelt  * 

kneeling 

knelt  * 

knits 

knit* 

knitting 

knit* 

knows 

knew 

knowing 

known 

lades 

laded 

lading 

laden  * 

lays 

laid 

laying 

laid 

leads 

led 

leading 

led 

leans 

leant* 

leaning 

leant  * 

leaps 

leapt  * 

leaping 

leapt  * 

*  The  regular  form  also  occurs. 


2Q2 


APPENDIX 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PRES.   PART. 

PERF.   PART. 

learn 

learns 

learnt  * 

learning 

learnt  * 

leave 

leaves 

left 

leaving 

left 

lend 

lends 

lent 

lending 

lent 

let 

lets 

let 

letting 

let 

lie  (recline} 

lies 

lay 

lying 

lain 

light 

lights 

lit* 

lighting 

lit* 

lose 

loses 

lost 

losing 

lost 

make 

makes 

made 

making 

made 

mean 

means 

meant 

meaning 

meant 

meet 

meets 

met 

meeting 

met 

mow 

mows 

mowed 

mowing 

mown* 

pay 

pays 

paid 

paying 

paid 

pen  (shut  up} 

pens 

pent* 

penning 

pent* 

put 

puts 

put 

putting 

put 

quit 

quits 

quit* 

quitting 

quit* 

rap 

raps 

rapt* 

rapping 

rapt* 

read 

reads 

read 

reading 

read 

rend 

rends 

rent 

rending 

rent 

rid 

rids 

rid* 

ridding 

rid* 

ride 

rides 

rode 

riding 

ridden 

ring 

rings 

jrang 

ringing 

rung 

(.  rung 

rise 

rises 

rose 

rising 

risen 

rive 

rives 

rived 

riving 

riven  * 

run 

runs 

ran 

running 

run 

saw 

saws 

sawed 

sawing 

sawn* 

say 

says 

said 

saying 

said 

see 

sees 

saw 

seeing 

seen 

seek 

seeks 

sought 

seeking 

sought 

sell 

sells 

sold 

selling 

sold 

send 

sends 

sent 

sending 

sent 

set 

sets 

set 

setting 

set 

shake 

shakes 

shook 

shaking 

shaken 

shape 

shapes 

shaped 

shaping 

shapen  * 

shave 

shaves 

shaved 

shaving 

shaven  * 

shear 

shears 

shore  * 

shearing 

shorn  * 

shed 

sheds 

shed 

shedding 

shed 

shine 

shines 

shone 

shining 

shone 

• 

The  regular  form 

•also  occurs. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS 


293 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PRES.    PART. 

PERF.  PART. 

shoe 

shoes 

shod 

shoeing 

shod 

shoot 

shoots 

shot 

shooting 

shot 

show 

shows 

showed 

showing 

shown  * 

shred 

shreds 

shred  * 

shredding 

shred  * 

shrink 

shrinks 

(  shrank 
(  shrunk 

shrinking 

j  shrunk 
<  shrunken 

shrive 

shrives 

shrove  * 

shriving 

shriven  * 

shut 

shuts 

shut 

shutting 

shut 

sing 

sings 

jsang 
(  sung 

singing 

sung 

sink 

sinks 

\  sank 
i  sunk 

sinking 

sunk 

sit 

sits 

sat 

sitting 

sat 

slay 

slays 

slew 

slaying 

slain 

sleep 

sleeps 

slept 

sleeping 

slept 

slide 

slides 

slid 

sliding 

(  slidden 
(slid 

sling 

slings 

slung 

slinging 

slung 

slink 

slinks 

slunk 

slinking 

slunk 

slit 

slits 

slit* 

slitting 

slit* 

smell 

smells 

smelt  * 

smelling 

smelt  * 

smite 

smites 

smote 

smiting 

smitten 

sow 

sows 

sowed 

sowing 

sown  * 

speak 

speaks 

spoke 

speaking 

spoken 

speed 

speeds 

sped* 

speeding 

sped* 

spell 

spells 

spelt  * 

spelling 

spelt  * 

spend 

spends 

spent 

spending 

spent 

spill 

spills 

spilt  * 

spilling 

spilt  * 

spin 

spins 

spun 

spinning 

spun 

spit 

spits 

•spit 

spitting 

spit 

split 

splits 

split 

splitting 

split 

spoil 

spoils 

spoilt  * 

spoiling 

spoilt  * 

spread 

spreads 

spread 

spreading 

spread 

spring 

springs 

(  sprang 

springing 

sprung 

(  sprung 

stand 

stands 

stood 

standing 

stood 

stave 

staves 

stove  * 

staving 

stove  * 

stay 

stays 

staid  * 

staying 

staid  * 

* 

The  regular  form 

also  occurs. 

294 


APPENDIX 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PRES.  PART. 

PERF.   PART. 

steal 

steals 

stole 

stealing 

stolen 

stick 

sticks 

stuck 

sticking 

stuck 

sting 

stings 

stung 

stinging 

stung 

strew 

strews 

strewed 

strewing 

strewn  * 

stride 

strides 

strode 

striding 

stridden 

strike 

strikes 

struck 

striking 

(  struck 
(  stricken 

string 

strings 

strung 

stringing 

strung 

strive 

strives 

strove 

striving 

striven 

swear 

swears 

swore 

swearing 

sworn 

sweat 

sweats 

sweat  * 

sweating 

sweat  * 

sweep 

sweeps 

swept 

sweeping 

swept 

swell 

swells 

swelled 

swelling 

swollen  * 

(  swam 

swim 

swims 

swimming 

swum 

(  swum 

swing 

swings 

swung 

swinging 

swung 

take 

takes 

took 

taking 

taken 

teach 

teaches 

taught 

teaching 

taught 

tear 

tears 

tore 

tearing 

torn 

tell 

tells 

told 

telling 

told 

think 

thinks 

thought 

thinking 

thought 

thrive 

thrives 

throve  * 

thriving 

thriven  * 

throw 

throws 

threw 

throwing 

thrown 

thrust 

thrusts 

thrust 

thrusting 

thrust 

tread 

treads 

trod 

treading 

\  trodden 
1  trod 

wake 

wakes 

woke  * 

waking 

woke  * 

wear 

wears 

wore 

wearing 

worn 

weave 

weaves 

wove 

weaving 

woven 

wed 

weds 

wedded 

wedding 

wed* 

weep 

weeps 

wept 

weeping 

wept 

wet 

wets 

wet* 

wetting 

wet* 

win 

wins 

won 

winning 

won 

wind 

winds 

wound 

winding 

wound 

work 

works 

wrought  * 

working 

wrought  * 

wrap 

wraps 

wrapt  * 

wrapping 

wrapt  * 

wring 

wrings 

wrung 

wringing 

wrung 

write 

writes 

wrote 

writing 

written 

*  The  regular  form  also  occurs. 


COMPLETE    CONJUGATION 


295 


2.     "COMPLETE   CONJUGATION." 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Active. 


SINGULAR. 

First  Person.      I  love 

Second  Person.   You  love  (thou  lovest) 

l^hird  Person.     He  loves  (loveth) 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 
Third  Person. 


Passive. 
I  am  loved 

You  are  (thou  art)  loved 
He  is  loved 


PLURAL. 
We  love 
You  (ye)  love 
They  love 

We  are  loved 
You  (ye)  are  loved 
They  are  loved 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 


Active. 

First  Person.      I  have  loved 
Second  Person.   You  have  (thou  hast)  loved 
Third  Person.     He  has  (hath)  loved 

Passive. 

First  Person.      I  have  been  loved 

Second  Person.   You  have  (thou  hast)  been 

loved 
Third  Person.     He  has  (hath)  been  loved 


We  have  loved 
You  (ye)  have  loved 
They  have  loved 

We  have  been  loved 
You  (ye)  have  been  loved 

They  have  been  loved 


PAST  TENSE. 

Active. 

First  Person.      I  loved 

Second  Person.   You  loved  (thou  lovedst) 

Third  Person.     He  loved 

Passive. 

First  Person.      I  was  loved 

Second  Person.   You  were  (thou  wast)  loved 

Third  Person.     He  was  loved 


We  loved 
You  (ye)  loved 
They  loved 

We  were  loved 
You  (ye)  were  loved 
They  were  loved 


296 


APPENDIX 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Active. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

First  Person.      I  had  loved  We  had  loved 

Second  Person.   You  had  (thou  hadst)  loved     You  (ye)  had  loved 
Third  Person.     He  had  loved  They  had  loved 

Passive. 

First  Person.      I  had  been  loved  We  had  been  loved 

Second  Person.   You  had  (thou  hadst)  been  You  (ye)  had  been  loved 

loved 

Third  Person.     He  had  been  loved  They  had  been  loved 

FUTURE  TENSE. 


Active. 

First  Person.      I  shall  love 

Second  Person.   You  will  (thou  wilt)  love 

Third  Person.     He  will  love 

Passive. 

First  Person.      I  shall  be  loved 
Second  Person.   You  will  (thou  wilt)  be 


We  shall  love 
You  (ye)  will  love 
They  will  love 


We  shall  be  loved 
You  (ye)  will  be  loved 


Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 


loved 
He  will  be  loved 


They  will  be  loved 


FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Active. 


I  shall  have  loved 

You  will  (thou  wilt)  have 

loved 
He  will  have  loved 

Passive. 

I  shall  have  been  loved 
You  will  (thou  wilt)  have 

been  loved 
He  will  have  been  loved 


We  shall  have  loved 
You  (ye)  will  have  loved 

They  will  have  loved 


We  shall  have  been  loved 
You  (ye)  will  have  been 

loved 
They  will  have  been  loved 


COMPLETE    CONJUGATION 


297 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 
"    PRESENT  TENSE. 


Active. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 
Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 
Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 
Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 


SINGULAR. 

(10  I  love 

(If)  you  (thou)  love 

(If)  he  love 

Passive. 

(If)  I  be  loved 

(If)  you  (thou)  be  loved 

(If)  he  be  loved 


PLURAL. 


(If)  we  love 

(If)  you  (ye)  love 

(If)  they  love 


(If)  we  be  loved 

(If)  you  (ye)  be  loved 

(If)  they  be  loved 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 


Active. 

(If)  I  have  loved 

(If)  you  (thou)  have  loved 

(If)  he  have  loved 

Passive. 

(If)  I  have  been  loved 
(If)  you  (thou)  have  been 

loved 
(If)  he  have  been  loved 

PAST  TENSE. 
Active. 


First  Person.  (If)  I  loved 

Second  Person.  (If)  you  (thou)  loved 

Third  Person.  (If)  he  loved 

Passive. 

First  Person.  (If)  I  were  loved 

Second  Person.  (If)  you  (thou)  were  loved 

Third  Person.  (If)  he  were  loved 


(If)  we  have  loved 

(If)  you  (ye)  have  loved 

(If)  they  have  loved 


(If)  we  have  been  loved 
(If)  you  (ye)  have  been 

loved 
(If)  they  have  been  loved 


(If)  we  loved 

(If)  you  (ye)  loved 

(If)  they  loved 


(If)  we  were  loved 

(If)  you  (ye)  were  loved 

(If)  they  were  loved 


298 


APPENDIX 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Active. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 
Third  Person. 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 


SINGULAR. 

(If)  I  had  loved 

(If)  you  (thou)  had  loved 

(If)  he  had  loved 

Passive. 

(If)  I  had  been  loved 
(If)  you  (thou)  had  been 

loved 
(If)  he  had  been  loved 


PLURAL. 


(If)  we  had  loved 

(If)  you  (ye)  had  loved 

(If)  they  had  loved 

(If)  we  had  been  loved 
(If)  you  (ye)  had  been 

loved 
(If)  they  had  been  loved 


First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

First  Person. 
Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

First  Person. 
Second  Person. 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE 

Active. 

I    may,  can,   must,  or  will  We   may,   can,  must,  or 

love  will  love 

You  may,  can,  must,  or  shall  You  (ye)  may,  can,  must, 

(thou  mayst,  canst,  must,  or  shall  love 

or  shalt)  love 

He  may,  can,  must,  or  shall  They  may,  can,  must,  or 


love 


shall  love 


Passive. 

I  may,  can,  must,  or  will  be  We    may,   can,   must  or 

loved  will  be  loved 

You  may,  can,  must,  or  shall  You  (ye)  may,  can,  must, 

(thou  mayst,  canst,  must,  or  shall  be  loved 

or  shalt)  be  loved 

He  may,  can,  must,  or  shall  They  may,  can,  must,  or 

be  loved  shall  be  loved 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Active. 

I    may,   can,  must,  or  will  We   may,   can,  must,  or 

have  loved  will  have  loved 

You  may,  can,  must,  or  shall  You  (ye)  may,  can,  must, 

(thou  mayst,  canst,  must,  or  shall  have  loved 
or  shalt)  have  loved 


COMPLETE    CONJUGATION 


299 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Third  Person.     He  may,  can,  must,  or  shall     They  may,  can,  must,  or 
have  loved  shall  have  loved 


Passive. 

First  Person.  I  may,  can,  must,  or  will 
have  been  loved 

Second  Person.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  shall 
(thou  mayst,  canst,  must, 
or  shalt)  have  been  loved 

Third  Person.  He  may,  can,  must,  or  shall 
have  been  loved 


We   may,  can,   must,   or 

will  have  been  loved 
You  (ye)  may,  can,  must, 

or     shall     have     been 

loved 
They  may,  can,  must,  or 

shall  have  been  loved 


PAST  TENSE. 
Active. 

First  Person.      I   might,   could,  would,  or  We  might,  could,  would, 

should  love  or  should  love 

Second  Person.   You  might,  could,  would,  or  You    (ye)    might,  could, 

should     (thou    mightst,  would,  or  should  love 

couldst,      wouldst,      or 

shouldst)  love 

Third  Person.     He  might,  could,  would,  or  They  might,  could,  would, 

should  love  or  should  love 


Passive. 

First  Person.  I  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be  loved 

Second  Person.  You  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  (thou  mightst, 
couldst,  wouldst,  or 
shouldst)  be  loved 

Third  Person.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be  loved 


We  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved 

You  (ye)  might,  could, 
would,  or  should  be 
loved 

They  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  be  loved 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Active. 

First  Person.      I    might,  could,  would,  or    We  might,  could,  would, 
should  have  loved  or  should  have  loved 


3OO  APPENDIX 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Second  Person.   You  might,  could,  would,  or  You  (ye)   might,    could, 

should     (thou     mightst,  would,  or  should  have 

couldst,      wouldst,      or  loved 

shouldst)  have  loved 

Third  Person.     He  might,  could,  would,  or  They  might,  could,  would, 

should  have  loved  or  should  have  loved 

Passive. 

First  Person,      I    might,  could,   would,  or  We  might,  could,  would, 

should  have  been  loved  or    should    have   been 

loved 

Second  Person.   You   might,   could,   would,  You    (ye)  might,    could, 

or  should  (thou  mightst,  would,  or  should  have 

couldst,      wouldst,       or  been  loved 
shouldst)      have      been 
loved 

Third  Person.     He  might,  could,  would,  or  They  might,  could,  would, 

should  have  been  loved  or  should    have    been 

loved 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 


Active. 
Love 

Passive. 

Be  loved 
INFINITIVE. 

Active. 
To  love 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Passive. 

To  be  loved 

PERFECT  TENSE. 

To  have  loved  To  have  been  loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Active.  Passive. 

Loving  Being  loved 

PERFECT  TENSE. 
Having  loved  Having  been  loved 


HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  3<DI 

3.    HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  was  settled  by  people  speaking  the  English 
language  as  it  was  spoken  in  England.  Their  descendants 
and  the  descendants  of  the  immigrants  from  other  countries 
who  have  mingled  with  the  English-speaking  people  of 
America  still  speak  English,  but  not  exactly  the  English  that 
is  spoken  in  England  to-day.  The  English  of  American 
literature  is  much  like  that  of  English  literature,  but  the 
American  pronunciation  is  not  exactly  like  that  of  the 
English.  Many  words  and  expressions  of  spoken  English 
are  also  different  in  the  two  countries.  By  fix,  for  instance, 
the  American  means  arrange,  whereas  an  Englishman 
means  make  permanent.  The  English  call  the  fireman 
of  an  engine  a  stoker,  and  the  conductor  of  a  train  a 
guard.  These  differences  have  come  about  imperceptibly, 
in  spite  of  constant  communication  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. What  differences  of  language  do  you  know  between 
different  localities  in  your  own  country  ? 

In  a  similar  way,  not  only  different  expressions,  but  differ- 
ent languages,  may  be  developed  from  a  parent  language 
if  communication  among  different  groups  of  people  is 
broken,  and  especially  if  conditions  of  life  are  different 
also.  It  is  therefore  possible,  by  noting  the  resemblances 
and  differences  between  two  languages  in  different  places 
or  at  different  periods,  to  trace  their  relationship  to  each 
other,  and  also  to  some  parent  language,  which  may  per- 
haps be  a  dead  language,  or  even  a  hypothetical  language. 

By  such  means  it  has  been  discovered  that  most  of  the 
languages  of  southern  and  western  Asia  and  of  Europe  are 
related  to  one  another.  This  great  family  of  languages  is 
called  the  Indo-European.  Its  chief  branches  are  :  (a)  the 


302         .  APPENDIX 

Aryan,  represented  by  the  Indian  or  Hindu  ;  (£)  the  Greek ; 
(c)  the  Latin,  represented  by  the  modern  languages,  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese ;  (d)  the  Celtic,  repre- 
sented by  the  Welsh,  and  by  the  Irish,  Scotch,  and  Manx 
languages,  called  Gaelic ;  and  (V)  the  Teutonic,  repre- 
sented by  the  Dutch,  Scandinavian,  German,  Flemish, 
and  English. 

One  characteristic  of  the  Teutonic  languages  is  a  fixed 
accent  on  the  root,  or,  in  derived  words,  on  the  first  part  of 
the  word,  thus  causing  vowels  occurring  in  later  syllables 
to  be  slurred,  and  so  lost,  first  in  pronunciation,  and  after- 
ward in  spelling.  Another  peculiarity  is  a  very  simple 
verb  inflection.  A  third  peculiarity  is  the  method  of 
forming  the  past  tense  of  the  verb,  either  by  a  change 
of  the  vowel,  as  in  sing,  sang,  or  by  the  addition  of  d,  ed, 
or  /  to  the  present  tense  form. 

These  peculiarities  of  its  grammar  cause  the  English  to 
be  classified  as  a  Teutonic  language,  although  in  the  English 
dictionary  there  are  twice  as  many  words  of  Latin  as  of 
Teutonic  origin.  The  Teutonic  words,  however,  are  those 
in  most  frequent  use. 

Let  us  see  through  what  stages  the  English  language 
developed. 

In  the  first  century  after  the  birth  of  Christ  the  Romans 
conquered  the  Celts,  a  people  but  little  civilized,  who 
inhabited  the  island  now  called  Great  Britain.  For  more 
than  three  hundred  years  the  conquerors  ruled  the  people 
of  the  island,  building  many  important  cities,  connecting 
remote  parts  of  the  island  by  well-made  roads,  and  de- 
veloping industries  and  commerce  along  lines  of  advancing 
civilization.  Britain  was  at  this  time  a  province  of  Rome. 
In  the  year  41 1  A.D.  the  Romans  withdrew  from  Britain, 
leaving  the  original  Celtic  inhabitants  to  rule  themselves. 


HISTORY   OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  303 

As  they  were  unable  to  do  this  successfully  because  of 
the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island,  they  invited  to  their  shores 
Teutons  from  the  mainland  of  Europe,  a  warlike  race  of 
people,  to  help  them. 

The  effect  of  the  first  civilization  of  the  island  on  the 
language  now  called  English  was  only  indirect,  and  is  but 
dimly  seen. 

The  chief  Teutonic  tribes  who  came  were  the  Saxons, 
Angles,  and  Jutes.  The  people  who  are  descended  from 
these  Teutonic  tribes  are  called  Anglo-Saxon,  or  English. 
Their  language  in  its  early  stages  is  called  Anglo-Saxon ; 
in  its  later  stages,  English. 

The  Angles  settled  in  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of 
England ;  the  Saxons,  in  the  southern  part.  There  were, 
of  course,  soon  many  dialects,  as  indeed  there  still  are  in 
the  spoken  English  of  these  same  parts  of  England,  as  you 
may  observe  in  Tennyson's  Northern  Farmer,  Blackmore's 
Lorna  Doone,  and  Barrie's  Sentimental  Tommy. 

The  earliest  known  English  literature  was  written  in  an 
Anglian  dialect  of  northern  England ;  but  in  the  time  of 
the  famous  King  Alfred,  a  little  over  a  thousand  years  ago, 
a  number  of  books  were  written  in  a  Saxon  dialect  of 
southern  England.  For  a  long  period,  however,  there  was 
no  standard  English.  Every  man  who  wrote  English  used 
the  dialect  with  which  he  was  most  familiar ;  but  most  of 
the  literature  of  the  time  was  written  in  Latin,  then  the 
language  of  scholars. 

From  the  days  of  Chaucer  (fourteenth  century)  up  to 
Shakespeare's  time  (sixteenth  century)  there  were  two 
literatures  side  by  side,  that  written  in  the  dialect  of  the 
northern  Teutons  —  the  lowland  Scotch  —  and  that  in  the 
dialect  of  the  midland  Teutons  of  middle  England. 


304  APPENDIX 

As  in  Greece  the  Attic  Greek,  spoken  in  the  great  city 
of  Athens,  became  the  standard  language,  and  as  in  France 
to-day  the  language  of  Paris  is  the  standard,  so  the  dialect 
of  middle  England,  where  was  the  great  city  of  London, 
became  the  standard  English,  in  which,  from  Chaucer's 
day  to  ours,  almost  all  great  works  of  the  English  tongue 
have  been  written,  though  Burns"  employed  also  the  north- 
ern dialect,  or  lowland  Scotch.  But  this  midland  dialect 
had  at  that  time  been  modified  by  contact  both  with  its 
southern  and  with  its  northern  neighbors,  so  that  the 
permanent  basis  of  modern  English  is  the  result  of  the 
combining  of  several  dialects. 

The  development  of  the  language  during  this  time  is 
characterized  by  two  distinct  features  :  first,  a  change,  the 
dropping  of  inflectional  forms  and  a  freer  use  of  relation 
words ;  secondly,  a  growth,  the  addition  of  new  words 
appropriated  from  other  languages. 

The  primitive  Indo-European  language  had  eight  cases 
for  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives,  and  three  numbers, 
three  voices,  and  many  tenses  for  verbs.  A  great  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  inflectional  forms  occurred  before 
English  was  evolved,  yet  in  early  English  nouns  had  four 
cases. 

Philologists  divide  the  history  of  the  English  language 
into  three  periods :  the  Old-English  period,  of  full  in- 
flections, up  to  noo  A.D.  ;  the  Middle-English  period,  of 
disappearing  inflections,  from  noo  to  1500  A.D.  ;  and  the 
Modern-English  period,  of  lost  inflections,  down  to  the 
present  time. 

The  Danes  or  Northmen,  who  conquered  England  early 
in  the  eleventh  century,  produced  little  impression  on  the 
English  language ;  what  they  added  to  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
cover, for  they  too  spoke  a  Teutonic  language.  Proper 


HISTORY   OF   THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  305 

names  ending  in  son,  the  pronoun  forms  they  and  their,  and 
a  few  common  words  such  as  husband,  key,  flag,  are  from 
the  Danish. 

The  Normans,  who"  conquered  England  in  1066,  intro- 
duced French  as  the  spoken  language  of  the  court  and  of 
polite  society,  as,  indeed,  it  was  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  at  that  time.  From  the  French  many  words, 
among  them  air,  age,  and  chapter,  then  entered  the  English 
vocabulary. 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  English  was 
much  influenced  by  Parisian  rather  than  Norman  French, 
brought  over  this  time  not  by  courtiers,  but  by  scholars. 
A  great  university  was  started  in  Paris,  to  which  English- 
men flocked  for  instruction.  These  brought  home  with 
them  not  only  the  love  of  letters,  but  also  the  language  of 
letters,  as  well  as  the  style  of  French  orators  and  writers. 

Throughout  all  this  time,  Latin  had  been  the  language 
of  the  church  (as  indicated  by  such  words  as  altar,  candle, 
alms)  and  of  the  learned  in  all  the  walks  of  life.  Many 
authors,  even  as  late  as  Shakespeare's  day,  either  wrote  in 
Latin  or  translated  into  Latin  such  of  their  English  works 
as  they  wished  might  live.  To  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1709- 
1784),  who  wrote  much  for  the  public  press,  more  than  to 
any  other  one  man,  is  due  the  importation  of  Latin  terms, 
for  he  not  only  borrowed  many  himself,  but  he  set  the 
fashion  of  thus  borrowing.  Moreover,  he  wrote  a  diction- 
ary in  which  he  incorporated  many  words  of  Latin  origin, 
thus  authorizing  the  use  of  these  words. 

Of  late  years,  the  chief  words  borrowed  are  taken  by 
scientific  men  from  both  Latin  and  Greek  roots  for  the 
purpose  of  scientific  nomenclature.  When  a  subject  de- 
manding the  use  of  these  scientific  terms  attracts  for  any 
reason  popular  interest,  the  terms  become  a  part  of  the 

P.    C.    GRAM.  —  2O 


306  APPENDIX 

vocabulary  of  spoken  English.  Bacillus,  bacteria,  germi- 
cide, have  become  common  in  this  way. 

English  has  borrowed  to  some  slight  extent  from  many 
other  sources.  Hominy  is  American  in  origin  ;  bog  is  Irish  ; 
crag  and  whisky  are  Scotch-Gaelic  ;  mosquito  is  Spanish ; 
banana,  Portuguese ;  jungle  is  Indian  ;  coffee  is  Arabic ;  tea 
is  Chinese ;  taboo  is  from  Polynesia ;  and  boomerang,  from 
Australia. 

Nor  is  borrowing  the  only  method  of  increasing  the 
vocabulary.  Word  compounding  and  word  forming  by 
means  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  have  been  explained  in  the 
chapter  on  derivatives. 

By  all  these  means,  the  English  vocabulary  has  been 
increased  tenfold,  making  the  language  wonderfully  rich 
and  flexible.  It  is  spoken  by  over  a  hundred  million  of 
the  most  enlightened  people  in  the  world,  is  the  chief 
language  of  commerce,  and  has  given  birth  to  at  least 
two  great  literatures,  rich  in  history,  science,  religion, 
philosophy,  travel,  poetry,  and  fiction. 

4.     ADDITIONAL   STUDY  IN  WORD  BUILDING.* 

A  prefix  or  a  suffix  which  is  used  to  form  English  deriva- 
tives may  also  be  found  in  a  word  of  foreign  origin,  having 
the  same  effect  upon  the  foreign  primitive  word  or  stem  as 
it  has  when  united  with  an  English  primitive  word.  For 
instance,  just  as  prehistoric  is  composed  of  pre  (before)  and 
historic,  and  thus  means  before  the  historic  age,  so  precede, 
a  primitive  English  word,  is  made  up  from  pre  (before) 
and  the  Latin  stem  ced  (in  the  verb  cedere,  to  go),  and 
thus  means  to  go  before. 

*  Including  the  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  stems  prescribed  by  the  Regents  of 
the  University  of  New  York  in  their  course  in  "  Elementary  English." 


WORD    BUILDING  307 

Review  Lesson  147,  pages  280-282.  The  prefix  con  or 
co  also  occurs  in  the  forms  col,  com,  cor  ;  and  e  or  ef  occurs 
for  ex  ;  what  are  their  meanings  ? 

Other  prefixes  are  :  — 

a,  ab,  meaning  from  ;  as  in  abject,  which  is  made  up  from  ab  and  the 

Latin  stem/^/  (throw). 
ad,  or  its  forms  ac,«ag,  al,  am,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at,  meaning  to  ;  as  in 

accede,  made  up  from  ad  (ac}  and  ced  (yield). 
circum,  around  ;   as  in  circumscribe,  made  up  from  circum  and  scribe 

(write  or  draw). 
in  (il,  im,  ir),  in,  into;   as  inject,  from  in  and  ject  (throw);   ////pel; 

Ascribe. 

ob  (oc,  of,  op,  os),  against  ;  as  object,  from  ob  and  ject  (throw). 
per,  through  ;  as  perennial,  from  per  and  enn  (year)  . 
re  (red),  back  ;  as  repel,  from  re  and  pel  (drive)  ;  reject. 
sub  (sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sur,  sus),  under,  after  ;  as  submerge,  from  sub 

and  merg  (dip,  sink)  ; 


Review  Lesson  148,  especially  pages  282,  283,  and  pages 
286,  287. 

Some  English  words  derived  from  foreign  words  can 
be  readily  analyzed  ;  such  a  word  is  adapt,  made  up  from 
ad  (to)  and  apt  (fit,  join).  But  sometimes  a  foreign  word 
is  made  of  a  stem  united  with  unusual  prefixes  or  suffixes. 
The  word  curriculum,  for  instance,  is  made  from  the 
Latin  stem  curr  (run  ;  curriculum  meant  "  race  course  " 
before  it  came  to  mean  "course  of  study");  but  the  rest 
of  the  word  is  not  found  in  English  derivatives.  Some 
of  the  words  derived  from  the  following  foreign  stems 
you  will  be  able  to  analyze  completely,  but  in  some  only 
the  meaning  of  the  stem  can  be  traced.  Analyze  those 
which  contain  prefixes  or  suffixes  which  you  know,  and 
find  in  the  dictionary,  if  you  can,  other  words  containing 
the  same  stem. 


308 


APPENDIX 


Foreign  Stems  of  Common  Occurrence  in  English  Words. 


ag,    do,    drive,    act ;    as    agitate ; 
agent. 

alt,  high;  as  altar;  #//itude. 

anim,  mind  ;   as  animosity  ;  anim- 
ate. 

ann  (enn),  year;   as  annual ;    bi- 
ennial. 

apt,  fit,  join;  as  adapt;  aptitude. 

bas,  low  ;  abase;  de&z.ye. 

brev,  short ;  as  ab&reviate  ;  brevity. 

cad  (cas),  fall ;  as  cascade  ;  casual. 

capt  (cap),  take  ;  as  capture  ;  capa- 
cious. 

earn,  flesh  ;  as  carnage  ;  carnal. 

ced  (cess),  go,  yield;    as  recede-, 
cession. 

cent,  hundred  ;  as  centennial ;  per- 
centage. 

cing   (cinct),  bind;    as   surcingle; 
succinct. 

clin,  lean,  bend;    as  decline;   in- 
cline. 

cor  (cord),  heart;  as  accord;  cord- 
ial. 

cur,  care ;  as  citrate ;  curious. 

curr,  run  ;  as  curriculum  ; 

diet,    speak,    say;    as 
dictation. 

dign,  worthy  ;  as  dignity  -  condign. 

due  (duct),  lead,  bring ;  as  deduct ; 
induce. 

equ,  equal ;  as  equate  ;  equity. 

fa,  speak  ;  as  affable  ;  jfable. 

fact,  make,  form,  do;  as  faction; 
factory. 

f er,  carry,  bear,  bring ;  as  fertile  ; 
transfer. 


fid,  faith,  trust ;  as  confide ;  con- 
fident. 

fin,  end,  limit ;  as  final ;  finish. 

frang  (frag,  fract),  break ;  as  fract- 
ure; fragile;  frangible. 

fus,  pour,  melt  $  as  confuse  ;  fusion. 

gener,  kind,  race  ;  as  generation  ; 
gender. 

grad  (gress),  step,  go  ;  as£>Wuate  ; 
egress. 

graph,  write  ;  as  autograph ;  graph- 
ical. 

grat,  pleasing ;  as  grateful ;  grati- 
tude. 

hospit,  host,  guest ;  as  hospitality. 

ject,  throw  ;  as  eject ;  project. 

junct,  join  ;  as  junction ;   adjunct. 

jur,  swear;  as  juror;  adjure. 

jur,  law ;  as  jurist ;  injury. 

lat,  carry,  bring ;  as  dilate ;  trans- 
late. 

leg,  send,  bring ;  as  al/<^e  ;  legacy. 

lect,  gather,  choose ;  as  collect ; 
elective. 

liber,  free  ;  as  liberal ;  liberate. 

lin,  flax;  as  linen;  linoleum. 

liter,  letter ;  as  /z'teral ;  literature. 

loc,  place ;  as  dislocate  ;  locality. 

log,  word  ;  as  logic ;  prologue. 

loqu  (locut),  speak  ;  as  loquacious  ; 
interlocutor. 

lud  (lus),  sport,  play ;  as  il/w.rion ; 
ludicrous. 

magn,  great ;  as  magnate ;  magni- 
tude. 

man,  hand  ;  as  w^^acle  ;  manual. 

mar,  sea ;  as  marine  ;  mariner. 


WORD  BUILDING 


309 


mater,  mother  ;  as  maternal  ;  mat- 

rimony. 
medi,  between  ;  as  mediate.  ;  medi- 

ocrity. 

ment,  mind  ;  as  mental  ;  mentality. 
mere,  merchandise,  trade  ;  as  com- 

mercial  ;  market. 
merg,  dip,  sink;  as,  emerge;  sub- 

merge. 
meter,    measure  ;     as     symmetry  ; 

thtrmometer  : 

migr,  wander  ;  as  emigrate. 
mir,   wonder,    look  ;    as    miracle  ; 

mirror. 
mitt  (miss),  send;  as  admission; 

commit. 
mon,  advise,  remind  ;  as  monitor  ; 


mort,  death  ;  as  immortal. 
mot,  move  ;  as  motion  ;  motor. 
mult,  many;    as  ;//#//iple  ;    multi- 

tude. 
mun,  fortify  ;  as  muniment  ;  muni- 

tion. 

nat,  born  ;  as  natal  ;  national. 
nav,  ship  ;  as  naval  ;  navy. 
not,  known  ;  as  notice  ;  notify. 
numer,  number  ;   as  in/zw/z^rable  ; 

enumerate. 
nunci  (nounc),  tell  ;  as  announce  ; 


ocul,  eye  ;  as  binocular  ;  oculist. 
par,  get  ready  ;  as  parry  ;  pre/tore. 
parl,  speak  ;  as  parley  ;  parlor. 
part,  divide  ;  as  partition. 
past,  feed  ;  as  pasture  ;  repast. 
pass,  suffer;  as  compassion. 
pater,  father  ;  as  paternal  ;  patri- 
cian. 


ped,  foot  ;  as  biped',  pedal. 

pell   (puls),  drive;   as  exflttlsion; 

propel;  compel. 
pend  (pens),  hang,  weigh,  pay  ;  as 

pendant  ;  pension. 
pet,  ask,  seek  ;  as  compete  ;  petition. 
phil,  love,  fond  ;  as  philanthropy  ; 


plet,  fill  ;  as  complete  ;  replete. 
plic,  fold,  bend  ;  as  com///<:ation. 
pon,  place  ;   as  com^went  ;   post- 

pone. 

port,  carry  ;  as  porter  ;  transport. 
port,  gate  ;  as  portal  ;  porter. 
pos,  place  ;  as  impost  ;  transpost. 
prim,  first  ;  as  primate  ;  primer. 
sacr,  holy  ;  as  sacrament  ;  sacred.. 
sci,  know  ;  as  omnLrc  zence  ;  science. 
scrib  (script),  write  ;  as  describe  ; 


sent  (sens),  feel,  think  ;  as  sensible  ; 

sentiment. 
sequ  (secut),  follow;    as  consecut- 

ive ;  sequel. 

sol,  alone  ;  as  solitary  ;  j^/itude. 
spec    (spect),   look;    as   prospect; 

spectacle. 

spir,  breathe  ;  as  expire  ;  inspire. 
stru  (struct),  build  ;  as  construe  ; 


sum  (sumpt),  take;    as   assumpt- 

ion ;  presume. 

tact,  touch;  as  contact;  tactile. 
un,   one;    as   w^animous    (of  one 

mind);  unit. 

ut,  use,  useful  ;  as  ?^ility  ;  ^/ilize. 
vid  (vis),  see  ;  as  evident  ;  visual. 
viv,  live  ;  as  wVacious  ;  vivid. 
voc,  call  ;  as  vocal  ;  vocation. 


3io 


APPENDIX 


5.    ADVANCED   WORK   IN   WORD   BUILDING.* 

Point  out  the  effect  of  the  following  prefixes  in  the  words 
given,  and  in  any  others  you  can  find  in  the  dictionary :  — 


a,   an,    not,  without;    as    atheist; 

anarchy. 
amb  (ambi),  around;  as  ambient; 

ambiguity. 
amphi,  on  both  sides,  around;  as 

amphibious ;  amphitheater, 
ana,  back,  again,   throughout ;   as 

analyze;  anatomy, 
ant  (anti),  against;   as  antarctic; 


ante,  before  ;  as 

apo,  from,  off;  as  apology. 

bene,  well ;  as  beneiactor ;  benevo- 
lence. 

bi,  two,  twice  ;  as  biped.  ;  ^'weekly. 

bis,  twice  ;  as  fa'scuit. 

cata,  down,  completely ;  as  catastro- 
phe ;  catalogue. 

contra  (contro,  counter),  against; 
as  contradict,  counterbalance. 

dia,  through  ;  as  diameter. 


dis  (di,  dif),  apart ;  as  differ ;  dis- 
tract. 

du  (duo),  two  ;  as  duel ;  ditet. 

epi,  upon  ;  as  epitaph. 

eu,  well ;  as  eulogy. 

extra,  beyond  ;  as  extravagant. 

hemi,  half;  as  ^<?;/z/sphere. 

pen,  almost ;  as  peninsula. 

poly,  many;  as  polygamy;  poly- 
syllable. 

pro,  before,  for;  as  ^r^ject;  /re- 
pose. 

pseudo,  false  ;  as  pseudonym. 

retro,  back  ;  as  retrocede. 

se,  aside,  apart ;  as 

sur,  over;  as  surcharge. 

syn  (sym,  syl,  sy),  with,  together 
with  ;  as  sympathy  ;  synonym. 

trans  (tran,  tra),  across;  as  trans- 
port; transpire. 

tri,  three,  thrice  ;  as  triangle. 


Tell  the  force  of  the  prefix  in  each  of  the  following 
words :  — 

1.  polytheistic.  4.    postpone.  7.   intervene. 

2.  bedeck.  5.    interpose.  8.    antedate. 

3.  deduct.  6.    superfluous.  9.    deduce. 

Besides  the  suffixes  given  on  pages  286,  287,  the  follow- 
ing are  of  common  occurrence  in  composition  with  foreign 
stems :  — 

*  Including  the  additional  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  stems  prescribed  by  the 
Regents  of  the  University  of  New  York  in  their  course  in  "Advanced 
English." 


WORD   BUILDING 


aceous  (acious),  like,  pertaining  to 

(forming     adjectives) ;     as     lo- 

quacious. 
acity  (icity,  ocity),  state  or  quality 

of  being    (forming   nourts) ;   as 

loquacity. 


ant,  ent,  ory  (forming  adjectives)  ; 
as  abundant^  pertinent]  ex- 
planatory. 

ile,  ine,  of,  pertaining  to  (forming 
adjectives)  ;  as  servile ;  feminine. 

pie,  fold  ;  as  quadru//<?. 


Analyze  as  completely  as  you  can  the  words  in  the 
following  list,  and  find  other  words  containing  the  same 
stems :  — 

Foreign  Stems  used  in  English  Words. 


aper,  open  ;  as  aperient ;  aperture. 

arch,   rule,   govern ;  as 
anarchy. 

art,  skill ;  as  artist. 

aud,  hear  ;  auditor ;  i 

aur,  gold  ;  as  auriferous. 

bat,  beat ;  as  batter ;  combat. 

bit,  bite  ;  as  bitter. 

cant,  sing ;  as  cantata ;  canticle. 

capit,  head  ;  as  capital ;  decapitate. 

celer,  swift ;  as  accelerate  ;  celerity. 

coron,  crown ;  as  corona ;  coroner. 

corpus  (corpor),  body  ;  as  incorpor- 
ate ;  corporeal ;  corpuscle. 

cred,  believe  ;  as  in<:r^ible. 

cycl,  circle,  wheel ;  as  cyclone ;  bi- 
cycle. 

dat  (dit),  give  ;  as  date. ;  edition. 

dent,  tooth  ;  as  dental ;  indent. 

di,  day ;  as  dial ;  diary. 

domin,  lord  ;  as  predominate. 

dorm,  sleep  ;  as  dormitory. 

fac,  face,  form  ;  as  efface  ;  facial. 

felic,     happy ;     as   felicitous ;    in- 
felicity. 

fess,    acknowledge ;     as    confess ; 
professional. 


form,  shape  ;  as  formation  ;  trans- 
form. 

fort,  strong ;  as  fortitude  ;  fortify. 

gest,  carry,  bring ;  as  digestion ; 
gesture. 

gran,  grain  ;  as  granary ;  granular. 

gross,  fat,  thick  ;  as  engross ;  gross. 

nor,  hour ;  as  /Wologe  5  /wroscope. 

judic,  judge  ;  as  judicial ;  Judiciary. 

lingu,  tongue  ;  as  Iing2tal ;  Iing2iist. 

major,  greater ;  as  majority. 

man,  stay,  dwell ;  as  manor ;  man- 
sion. 

medic,  physician  ;  as  medicate. 

mens,  measure  ;  as  com;w£7wurate. 

pan,  bread  ;  as  pannier ;  pantry. 

par,  equal ;  as  disparage ;  parity. 

pass,  step  ;  as  compass. 

pen,  pain,  punishment ;  as  penalty. 

petr,  rock  ;  as  petrifaction  ;  petrify. 

phon,  sound ;  as  phonetic ;  tele- 
phone. 

physi,  nature;  as  physiography. 

pict,  paint ;  as  depict ;  picture. 

plac,  please  ;  as  in  placable  ;  placid. 

plen,  full,  complete;  as  plenary ; 
plentiful. 


3I2 


APPENDIX 


plum,  feather ;  as  plumage  ;  plumes. 

plumb,  lead  ;  as  plumbex. 

pot,  drink  ;  as  ^/ation  ;  potion.. 

prehend  (prehens),  take,  grasp;  as 
comprehend ;  prehensile. 

punct,  prick,  point ;  as  punctuate.  ; 
puncture. 

quadr,  fourth,  four;  as  quadrant; 
quadruped. 

quant,  how  much  ;  as  quantitative  ; 
quantity. 

quer  (quir),  seek,  ask  ;  as  inquiry  ; 
query. 

quiet,  quiet ;  as  inquietude. 

radi,  ray  ;  as  radiant ;  radiate. 

rap  (rapt),  seize,  grasp ;  as  rapa- 
cious ;  rapture. 

rat,  think  ;  as  ratio  ;  irrational. 

rect,  ruled,  straight,  right ;  as  rect- 
ify;  correct. 

reg,  govern  ;  as  regent ;  r^ulate. 

ris  (rid),  to  laugh ;  as  ridicule ; 
risible. 

riv,  stream ;  as  derive  ;  river. 

rog,  ask ;  as  der^ate ;  interroga- 
tion. 

rupt,  break ;  as  interrupt ;  rupture.. 

sal,  salt ;  as  saline. 

sal,  leap  ;  as  salient ;  saltatory. 

sanct,  holy ;  as  sanction  ;  sanctuary. 

sat  (satis),  enough ;  as  satisfac- 
tory ;  satiated. 

scop,  watch,  view ;  as  episcopal ; 
telescope. 

sec  (sect),  cut;  as  bisect;  j^ant. 

sen,  old  ;  as  senile  ;  senior. 

serv,  keep  ;  as  conserve  ;  preserve. 

sist,  place,  stand  ;  as  assist ;  desist. 

son,  sound  ;  as  consonant. 


sort,  lot,  kind  ;  as  assort  ;   consort. 
speci,  kind  ;  as  species  ;  specific. 
stant,  standing;  as  constant  ;  dis- 

tant. 

stell,  star  ;  as  con^//ation  ;  stellar. 
string  (strain),  draw  tight,  bind; 

as  restrain  ;  stringent. 
su,  follow  ;  as  pursue  ;  suit. 
suad  (suas),  persuade  ;  as  dissuade  ; 


surg  (surrect),  rise  ;  as  i 

resurrection. 

taill,  cut;  as  entail;  tailor. 
tang,  touch  ;  as  tangent  ;  tangible. 
teg  (tect),  cover  ;  as  detect  ;  integ- 

ument. 

temper,  time  ;  as  temporary. 
tend  (tens,  tent),  reach,  stretch  ;  as 

contend;  content;  intense. 
test,  witness  ;  as  attest  ;  /lament. 
tort,  twist,  wring;   as  distort;  re- 

tort. 

tract,  draw  ;  as  subtract  ;  tractable. 
trit,  rub  ;  as  attrition  ;  triturate. 
trud  (trus),  thrust;   as  abstruse; 

intrude. 
und,    wave,    flow  ;     as    in//;^ate  ; 

undine. 

vad  (vas),  go  ;  as  e^tfdfe  ;  evasive. 
val,  be  strong;  as  valiant  ;  valid. 
ven  (vent),  come;  as  advent;  in- 

tervene. 
vert  (vers),   turn;   as  controvert; 

inversion. 

vi,  way,  road  ;  as  debate  ;  77/flduct. 
vie,  change  ;  as  Various  ;  vicar. 
volv    (volut),   roll;    as   evolution; 

revolve. 
vot,  vow  ;  as  devote  ;  votive. 


INDEX. 


A,  position  of,  218,  219. 

uses  of,  229,  260. 
Accessory  elements,  41,  42. 
Active  predicate  base,  40,  143. 
Adjective  element,  or  modifier,  38,  102, 
106,  107,  206. 

modifier  of  pronoun,  132. 

peculiar  use  of,  251. 

position  of,  219,  222. 
Adjective  pronouns,  118,  119. 
Adjectives,  106-117. 

attribute,  107,  176. 

cautions  regarding,  116,  117. 

classes  of,  108-110,  114. 

common,  108. 

comparison  of,  110-113,  117. 

conjunctive,  or  relative,  108,  192. 

inflection  of,  no,  in. 

interrogative,  no. 

irregular  comparison  of,  in. 

modifiers  of,  113,  176. 

parsing  of,  114. 

position  of,  107. 

predicate,  107. 

pronominal,  109,  118. 

proper,  108. 

relative,  or  conjunctive,  108,  192. 
Adjective  use,  of  noun,  98. 

of  verbs,  160. 

Adverbial  complements,  43,  44. 
Adverbial  modifiers,  or  elements,  39,  40, 
42,  44,  113,  186,  187,  206. 

peculiar  use  of,  252. 

position  in  sentence,  220,  221. 
Adverbial  use,  of  noun,  99. 

of  verbs,  162. 
Adverbs,  185-190. 

cautions  regarding,  190. 

classes  of,  188,  189. 

comparison  of,  188. 

conjunctive,  188,  192,  220,  238. 

forms  of,  188,  189. 


Adverbs,  interrogative,  188. 

modifiers  of,  186. 

parsing  of,  189. 

relative,  188 ;  see  Conjunctive  adverb. 
Advise,  takes  direct  and  indirect  object, 

254. 
Agreement  and  government,  226-232. 

of  adjectives,  229. 

of  nouns,  226. 

of  pronouns,  227-229,  231. 

of  verbs,  230-232. 

Ah  me,  grammatical  construction,  260. 
Already,  formation  of,  268. 
Am,  use  of,  164,  266. 
An,  position  of,  218,  219. 
Analysis,  complete,  of  sentence,  204-209. 

fine  points  of,  250-266. 

model  for,  206-208. 

sentences  for,  272-275. 

simple,  9-80. 
And,  coordinate  conjunction,  193. 

in  compound  sentences,  70. 

use  of,  194. 

Another,  declension  of,  119. 
Antecedent,  of  pronoun,  120,  257. 
Apostrophe,  in  possessive  case,  95",  104. 
Applications  of  grammar,  210-232. 
Appositive  nouns,  98,  100,  226. 
Appositive,  partitive,  126. 

syntax  of  peculiar  forms,  254,  255. 
Appositive  pronouns,  form  of,  128. 
Are,  old  meaning  of,  44. 
Arrangement  of  words  in  sentences,  217- 

225. 

Article,  260. 
As,  before  infinitive  phrase,  238. 

for  like,  200. 

relative  pronoun,  120. 

uses  of,  262,  263. 
As  soon  as,  elements  of,  259. 
Assert,  defined,  25. 
Asserted  relations,  n. 


313 


314 


INDEX 


Asserter  (copula),  24,  25,  29,  51, 141, 142, 
147,  163,  164,  168-173,  I92.  I93- 

chief,  163. 

introducing  subordinate  phrases,  196. 

modified,  29,  30. 
Assertion,  defined,  25. 
Assertive  phrase,  51,  233. 
Assumed  relations,  10. 
Attribute,  29,  148 ;  see  Complement, 

adjective,  107,  176. 

verbal,  176. 

Attributive  nouns,  agreement  of,  226. 
Auxiliaries,  are  asserters,  168. 

inflection  of,  168-170,  295-300. 

pure,  172. 

Base,  12. 

of  clause,  62,  63. 

predicate,  28,  34;  see  Predicate  base. 

subject,  27. 
Be,  see  To  be. 

Because,  subordinate  connective,  66,  264. 
Been,  used  after  have,  165. 
Being,  combined  with  participle,  241. 

in  participial  phrases,  165. 
But,  coordinate  conjunction,  193,  194. 

for  than,  200. 

in  compound  sentences,  70. 

omission  of,  211. 

proper  use  of,  261. 

with  subjunctive,  174. 
But  what,  for  but  that,  200. 

Can,  could,  auxiliaries,  172,  173. 
Can't, 'contraction,  277. 
Capitals,  use  of,  216. 
Case  inflection,  of  nouns,  95,  226. 

of  pronouns,  121,  127,  227,  228. 
Classification,  of  adjectives,  108-110. 

of  adverbs,  188,  189. 

of  elements,  23-67,  81. 

of  nouns,  84-86. 

of  pronouns,  118. 

of  verbs,  157-160. 

of  words,  81. 
Clause  modifier,  in  subordinate  clauses, 

67. 
Clauses,  20,  59. 

base  of,  62,  63. 

coordinate,  60. 

infinitive,  249. 


Clauses,  kinds  of,  20. 

participial,  249. 

principal,  60. 

punctuation  of,  213. 

subordinate,  60,  61,  62,  67,  220. 

uses  of,  253,  257,  258. 
Collective  noun,  90. 

pronoun  representing,  227. 

verb  form  after,  230. 
Combinations  of  words,  258,  259. 
Commas,  in  compounds,  70,  75,  211. 

indicating  omission,  212. 

in  imperative  sentences,  101,  214. 

in  independent  phrases,  202. 

in  interjectional  expressions,  214. 

in  mixed  sentences,  21. 

separating  short  clauses,  22. 

separating  subject  and  predicate,  214. 

various  uses  of,  212,  213. 

with  appositives,  100. 
Common  adjectives,  108. 
Common  gender,  87. 
Common  nouns,  84,  85. 
:  Comparative  degree,  of  adjectives,  no- 

113, 117- 

of  adverbs,  188. 

Comparatives,  double,  116,  117. 
Comparison,  of  adjectives,  110-113,  JI7- 

of  adverbs,  188. 
Complements,  29. 

adverbial,  43,  44. 

kinds  of,  31-33. 

modified,  29,  30. 

verbal,  35,  142,  144-146. 
Complete  analysis,  204-209. 
Complete  or  perfect  participle,  152,  157, 

241. 

Complex  sentence,  61,  65,  250,  251. 
Compound  elements,  72,  73. 

modifiers  of,  74. 

union  of,  75. 

Compound  personal  pronouns,  131,  132. 
Compound  relative  pronouns,  122. 
Compounds,  68-80. 
Compound  sentence,  60,  68,  250,  251. 

punctuation  of,  70. 

Compound  subject,  verb  form  after,  230. 
Compound  terms,  plurals  of,  94. 
Compound  words,  formation  of,  276. 
Conjugation,  complete,  295-300. 

inflectional,  155,  166,  167. 


INDEX 


315 


Conjunction,  coordinate,  191,  193-195. 

phrase  used  as,  256. 

subordinate,  192,  193,  196. 
Conjunctive  adjectives,  108. 
Conjunctive  adverbs,  188,  192. 

introducing  infinitive  phrase,  238. 

position  in  sentence,  220. 
Conjunctive  pronoun,  120. 
Connectives,  coordinate,  76,  191-195. 

in  compound  sentences,  70. 

in  union  of  compounds,  75. 

subordinate,  64-67,  192. 

use  of,  76,  192,  196. 
Constructions,  special,  233-275. 
Coordinate  clauses,  60. 
Coordinate  conjunctions,  191,  193-195. 
Coordinate  relation,  192. 
Copula,  see  Asserter, 
Copulative  infinitive  phrases,  165. 
Copulative  verbs,  defined,  164,  193. 
Correlatives,  use  of,  195. 

Dash,  use  of,  212. 
Declarative  sentence,  16. 
Declension,  of  noun,  96. 

of  pronoun,   119,   121,  122,  127,   128, 

130.  I3i- 
Degrees   of  comparison,    110-113,    IJ7» 

188. 

Derivatives,  English,  276-288. 
formation  of,  280. 
spelling  of,  284-288. 
Direct  object,  39,  254. 
Do,  use  of,  169-171. 

Each,  followed  by  singular  number,  231. 
Each  other,  union  of,  259. 
Either,  followed  by  singular  number,  231. 
Elements,  accessory,  41,  42. 

adjective,  38,  102,  106,  107,  206,  219. 

adverbial,  39,  42,  44,  113,  186,  187,  206, 
220,  221. 

classification  according  to  structure, 
47-67. 

classification  according  to  use,  23-46, 
81. 

compound,  72-75. 

essential,  41,  42. 

independent,  255,  256. 

See  Modifiers. 
Else,  inversion  after,  223. 


Emphatic  use  of  pronoun,  132. 
English  derivatives,  276-288. 
English  language,  history  of,  301. 
Essential  elements,  of  sentence,  41,  42. 
Every,  followed  by  singular  number,  231. 
Except,  use  of,  264. 

Exclamation  point,  17,  21,  100,  202,  214. 
Exclamatory  sentence,  17,  214. 

kinds  of,  18. 

Explanatory  nouns,  agreement  of,  226. 
Explanatory  terms,  position  of,  219. 
Expletives,  224,  270. 

Feminine  gender,  87,  127. 
Fine  points  of  analysis,  250-266. 
Finite  verbs,  234. 
For,  misuse  of,  200. 

subordinate  connective,  66. 
Former,  declension  of,  119. 
Future  tense,  173. 
Future  perfect  tense,  173. 

Gender,  of  nouns,  87,  282,  283. 

of  pronouns,  127,  227. 
Government  and  agreement,  226-232. 

of  adjectives,  229. 

of  nouns,  226. 

of  pronouns,  227-229,  231. 

of  verbs,  230-232. 
Grammar,  applications  of,  210-232. 

function  of,  8. 

Have,  169,  170,  236. 

Having,  combined  with  participle,  241. 

Having  been,  combined  with  participle, 

242. 

He,  124,  126,  127. 
Hers,  use  of,  130. 
His,  use  of,  130. 

How,  subordinate  connective,  66. 
Hyphen,  use  of,  276,  277. 

/,  124,  216. 

declension  of,  126,  127. 
I'd,  contraction,  277. 
Idea  words,  48,  191. 
Ideas,  expressed  by  words,  9. 

related,  47,  48. 
Idioms,  8,  267-271. 
If,  followed  by  subjunctive,  174. 

omission  of,  223. 


INDEX 


Imperative  mood,  of  verbs,  153. 
Imperative  sentences,  16. 

comma  in,  214. 

parts  of,  25. 

subject  of,  218. 
Impersonal  verbs,  266. 
Incomplete  participle,  151. 
Independent  elements,  255,  256. 
Independent  nouns,  100,  201,  202. 

punctuation  of,  100,  213. 
Independent  words,  201-203. 
Indicative  mood  of  verb,  153,  173. 
Indirect  object,  99,  128,  254. 
Infinitive,  149,  150,  234-236. 

modifiers  of,  235. 

nature  of,  235,  236. 

of  asserter,  165. 

parsing  of,  240. 

simplest  form  of  verb,  149. 

subject  of,  239. 

to,  sign  of,  234,  235. 

unusual  constructions,  238,  239. 

use  of,  161,  162. 
Infinitive  clause,  249. 
Infinitive  phrase,  149. 
Inflection,  53,  276. 

of  adjectives,  no,  in. 

of  adverbs,  188. 

of  auxiliaries,  168,  169,  295-300. 

of  nouns,  87-97. 

of  pronouns,  119,  121,  122,  127,  130, 
131,  227,  228. 

of  verbs,  151-155. 

Inflectional  conjugation,  155,  166,  167. 
Interjections,  202,  203. 

punctuation  of,  214. 
Interrogation  point,  15,  21,  212. 
Interrogative  adjectives,  no. 
Interrogative  adverbs,  188. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  123,  124. 
Interrogative  sentence,  15,  25. 
Interrogative  word,  position  of,  220. 
Into,  origin  of,  257. 
Intransitive  verb,  158,  159. 

passive  construction  of,  253. 
Inversions,  punctuation  of,  213. 

use  of,  219. 

with  expletives,  224. 

words  demanding,  223. 
Irregular  verbs,  157,  289. 
Is,  old  meaning  of,  44. 


//,  introducing  sentence,  224. 
personal  pronoun,  124. 
with  impersonal  verbs,  266.  ' 

Languages,  related,  7,  8,  301. 
Latter,  declension  of,  119. 
Lay,  use  of,  183. 

Least,  use  in  comparison,  112,  117,  188. 
Less,  use  in  comparison,  112,  117,  188. 
Lest,  use  of,  174,  264. 
Lie,  use  of,  183. 
Like,  for  as,  200. 
use  of,  263,  264. 

Many,  position  of  a,  an,  with,  218. 
Many  a,  followed  by  singular  number, 

231. 

Masculine  gender,  87,  127. 
May,  might,  auxiliaries,  172,  173. 
Meseems,  origin  of,  259. 
Methinks,  origin  of,  259. 
Mine,  use  of,  130. 
Mixed  sentence,  21. 
Modifiers,  12. 

adjective,  38,  106,  206,  219,  251. 

adverbial,  39,  40, 186,  206,  220. 

clause,  in  subordinate  clause,  67. 

in  phrases,  55-57. 

objective,  39,  40. 

of  adjective,  113, 176. 

of  compound  elements,  74. 

of  nouns,  102. 

of  pronouns,  132. 

predicate,  39-41. 

primary  and  secondary,  185-187. 

subject,  37,  38. 
Mood,  of  verbs,  153. 

imperative,  153. 

indicative,  153,  173. 

potential,  173. 

subjunctive,  174. 

More,  in  comparison,  no,  112,  117,  188. 
Most,  in  comparison,  no,  112,  117,  188. 
Must,  auxiliary,  172,  173. 
Myself,  misuse  of,  138. 

Near,  use  of,  264. 

Negatives,  use  of  two,  190. 

Neither,  followed  by  singular  number, 

231. 
omission  of,  223. 


INDEX 


317 


Neuter  gender,  87,  127. 
Next,  use  of,  264. 
No,  use  of,  261. 
Nominative  absolute,  271. 
Nominative  case,  of  nouns,  96. 

of  pronouns,  121,  127,  128. 
Nor,  use  of,  183. 

coordinate  conjunction,  193. 

inversion  after,  223. 
Notify,  takes  direct  and  indirect  object, 

254- 
Nouns,  83-105. 

agreement  of,  226. 

appositive,  98,  100,  226. 

as  attribute  of  subject,  too. 

case  inflection  of,  95. 

cautions  regarding,  104,  105. 

classes  of,  84-86. 

collective,  90. 

common,  85. 

declension  of,  96. 

gender  of,  87. 

independent,  201,  202,  213. 

inflection  of,  87-97. 

modifiers  of,  102, 176. 

number  of,  88,  89. 

object  of^ireposition,  100. 

parsing  of,  103. 

personified,  86. 

plural,  91-93. 

possessive,  95,  226. 

proper,  85. 

uses  of,  98-101. 
Number  inflection,  of  noun,  88,  89. 

of  pronoun,  127,  227. 

of  verb,  154. 

O,  216,  203. 
Object,  39. 

indirect,  99,  128,  254. 
Objective  case,  of  nouns,  96. 

of  pronouns,  121,  127,  128. 
Objective  elements,  or  modifiers,  39,  40. 

position  of,  222,  223. 
Objective  use,  of  nouns,  99. 

of  verbs,  161. 
Oh,  use  of,  203. 
Omissions,  259,  260. 
One,  declension  of,  119. 
Or,   connecting    clauses  of  compound 
sentences,  70. 


Or,  connecting  substantives,  183. 

coordinate  conjunction,  193,  194. 
Other,  declension  of,  119. 
Ours,  use  of,  130. 
Own,  idea  expressed  by,  132. 

Parenthesis,  use  of,  212. 
Parenthetic  expressions,  255. 
Parsing,  103. 

of  adjectives,  114. 

of  adverbs,  189. 

of  infinitives,  240. 

of  nouns,  103. 

of  participles,  246. 

of  pronouns,  133,  134. 

of  relation  words,  198. 

of  verbs,  178,  240,  246. 
Participial  adjectives,  nature  of,  245. 
Participial  clause,  249. 
Participial  phrase,  165,  241. 
Participles,  151,  152. 

combined  with  to  be,  to  have,  236. 

complete,  151,  241. 

forms  of,  241. 

incomplete,  151. 

meaning  and  uses  of,  243-247. 

nature  of,  176. 

of  asserters,  165. 

parsing  of,  246. 

perfect  or  complete,  151,  157,  241. 

present  or  progressive,  151,  241,  253. 

uses  of,  151,  160-162,  243-245. 
Partitive  appositives,  126. 
Parts  of  speech,  82,  81-209. 
Passive  construction,  of  verbs,  253,  254. 
Passive  predicate  base,  143. 
Past  perfect  tense,  170. 
Past  tense,  153,  157. 
Perfect  participle,  152,  241. 

formation  of,  157. 
Period,  use  of,  16,  212. 
Person,  of  pronouns,  125,  227. 

of  verbs,  154,  182. 
Personal  pronouns,  124. 

compound,  131,  132. 

inflection  of,  126,  127,  130. 
Personified  nouns,  86. 
Phrases,  49,  50. 

assertive,  51,  233. 

copulative  infinitive,  165. 

independent,  202. 


INDEX 


Phrases,  infinitive,  149,  165. 

participial,  165,  241. 

peculiar  uses  of,  256,  257. 

phrase  modifiers  of,  57. 

prepositional,  50-52,  233. 

word  modifiers  in,  55-57. 
Plural  of  nouns,  89-94. 
Positive  degree,  of  adjectives,  110-113. 

of  adverbs,  188. 
Possessive  case,  of  nouns,  95,  97,  226. 

of  pronouns,  121,  127,  128. 
Potential  mood,  of  verb,  173. 
Predicate,  24-26,  41. 

function  of,  31,  32. 

parts  of,  28,  29. 
Predicate  adjective,  107. 
Predicate  base,  28,  34. 

active,  40,  143. 

parts  of,  148. 

passive,  143. 

position  of,  220,  221. 
Predicate  modifiers,  39-41. 
Predicate  verb,  35,  147,  148. 
Prefixes,  278-282,  306,  307,  310. 
Preposition,  51,  193. 

introductory  word,  196,  197. 

position  of,  223. 

same  word  as  adverb,  197. 

use  of,  76,  192,  197. 
Prepositional  phrases,  51. 

kinds  of,  233. 

Present  participle,  151,  241,  253. 
Present  perfect  tense,  170. 
Present  tense,  152. 
Primitive  word,  278,  280. 
Principal,  49. 
Principal  clause,  60. 
Progressive  participle,  151,  152. 
Pronominal  adjectives,  109,  118. 
Pronouns,  83,  118-140. 

adjective,  118,  119. 

agreement  of,  227-229,  231. 

antecedent  of,  120,  257. 

appositive,  form  of,  128. 

case  forms  of,  119,  121,  122,  127,  130, 
227,  228. 

cautions  regarding,  135-140. 

classes  of,  118. 

conjunctive,  120,  121. 

gender  of,  127,  227. 

independent,  201. 


Pronouns,  interrogative,  123,  124. 

misuse  of,  138,  139. 

modifiers  of,  132. 

number   inflection   of,  119,  127,  130, 
131,  227. 

parsing,  133,  134. 

personal,  124-132. 

person  of,  125,  227. 

pure,  124. 

relative,  120-122,  192,  220. 

representing  a  collective  noun,  140, 
227. 

solemn  forms  of,  129. 
Proper  adjectives,  108. 
Proper  nouns,  85. 
Punctuation,  210-216. 

apostrophe,  95,  104. 

comma,  see  Comma. 

dash,  212. 

exclamation  point,  17,  21, 100,  202,214. 

hyphen,  276. 
'   interrogation  point,  15,  21,  212. 

of  compounds,  211. 

of  compound  sentences,  70. 

of  imperative  sentences,  214. 

of  independent  nouns,  100,  213. 

of  interjections,  202,  214.* 

of  inversions,  213. 

of  mixed  sentences,  21. 

of  subordinate  clauses,  213. 

of  unrelated  parts,  212-216. 

parenthesis,  212. 

period,  16,  212. 

semicolon,  21,  22,  71,  211. 
Pure  pronouns,  124. 
Pure  sentences,  17,  18,  19. 

Reflexive  use  of  pronoun,  132. 
Regular  verb,  157. 
Relation,  asserted,  10,  n. 

assumed,  10,  n. 

shown  by  position  and  form,  52,  53. 

subordinate  connective  showing,  192. 
Relation  words,  48,  191-200. 

cautions  regarding,  200. 

kinds  of,  191-193. 

parsing  of,  198. 

position  of,  222. 

subordinate,  196,  197. 
Relative  adjectives,  108,  192. 
Relative  adverbs,  188. 


INDEX 


319 


Relative  pronouns,  120,  121,  192. 

compound  forms  of,  122. 

position  in  sentence,  220,  222. 
Root,  278. 

Semicolon,  uses  of,  21,  22,  71,  211. 
Sentences,  9-22. 

analysis  of,  23-80,  204-209,  272-275. 

arrangement  of  words  in,  217-225. 

complex,  61,  65,  250,  251. 

compound,  60,  68,  70,  250,  251. 

declarative,  16. 

essential  elements  of,  41. 

exclamatory,  17,  18. 

imperative,  16,  25. 

interrogative,  15,  25. 

mixed,  20,  21. 

pure,  17,  19. 

simple,  59. 

typical,  19,  20. 

uses  of,  15-19. 
Set,  use  of,  184. 

Shall,  should,  auxiliaries,  172,  173. 
She,  personal  pronoun,  124. 
Simple  analysis,  9-80. 
Simple  sentence,  59. 
Singular  number,  of  nouns,  89. 

of  pronouns,  127,  227. 
Sit,  use  of,  184. 
So,  position  of  a  with,  219. 

use  of,  270,  271. 
Solemn  forms,  of  pronouns,  129. 

verb  forms  for,  154. 
Special  constructions,  233-275. 
Special  uses  of  words,  265,  206. 
Spelling,  of  derivative  words,  284-288. 

of  plural  nouns,  91-97. 

of  verb  forms,  177,  289. 
Stems,  306-312. 
Subject,  23-26,  41. 

compound,  verb  form  after,  230. 

of  imperative  sentence,  218. 

of  infinitive,  239. 
Subject  base,  27,  185. 

position  in  sentence,  218. 
Subject  modifiers,  37,  38. 
Subjunctive  mood  of  verb,  174. 
Subordinate,  49. 
Subordinate  clause,  60. 

clause  modifiers  in,  67. 

inversion  of,  220. 


Subordinate  clause,  punctuation  of,  213. 

use  of,  61,  62. 

Subordinate  conjunction,  192,  193,  196. 
Subordinate  connective,  64-67,  76,  192, 

196. 

Subordinate  relation  words,  192, 196,  197. 
Substantive  element,  subject  called,  41. 
Substantive  use,  of  noun,  98. 

of  verb,  161. 

Such,  position  of  a,  an,  with,  218. 
Such  a,  followed  by  singular  number,  231. 
Suffixes,  278,  279,  282-288,  306,  307,  311. 
Superlative  degree,  of  adjectives,   110- 

113.  "7- 
of  adverbs,  188. 
Superlatives,  djouble,  116,  117. 

Tense  inflection,  of  verbs,  152,  153,  157, 

168,  231. 
Than,  for  but,  200. 

use  of,  262. 
That,  introducing  clause,  258. 

misuse  of,  139. 

number  inflection  of,  113,  229. 

object  of  preposition,  223. 

relative  pronoun,  120,  121. 

subjunctive  mood  after,  174. 

subordinate  connective,  66. 

various  uses  of,  264. 
The,  position  of,  218. 

uses  of,  229,  260. 
Theirs,  use  of,  130. 
Them,  for  those,  139. 

There,  introductory  word,  224,  231,  270. 
They,  personal  pronoun,  124. 
Thine,  use  of,  130. 

This,  number  inflection  of,  113,  229. 
Those,  for  them,  139. 
Thou,  declension  of,  130. 
Thought,  related  ideas,  10,  191. 
Titles,  plurals  of,  94. 
To,  followed  by  infinitive,  233-235. 
To  be,  chief  asserter,  141. 

combined  with  participle,  236. 

conjugation  of,  163,  164. 

in  copulative  infinitive  phrases,  165. 

in  subjunctive  mood,  174. 

old  meaning  of,  44. 

peculiar  use  of,  266. 
To  come,  special  use  of,  266. 
To  do,  use  of,  169-171. 


320 


INDEX 


To  go,  special  use  of,  266. 

To  have,  combined  with  participles,  236. 

conjugation  of,  169,  170. 

special  use  of,  266. 

To  love,  conjugated,  155,  166,  167,  295. 
Transitive  verbs,  158,  159. 
Typical  sentence,  19. 

Unless,  for  without,  200. 

use  of,  264. 
Unto,  origin  of,  257. 
Upon,  origin  of,  257. 

Verbal  complement,  35,  142. 

forms  of,  144,  145. 
Verb  forms,  based  on  time,  152,  153. 

determined  by  subject,  154. 

meaning  of,  156. 

spelling  of,  184,  289. 
Verbs,  34-37,  141-184. 

agreement  and  government,  229,  230. 

auxiliaries,  167-173. 

cautions  regarding,  181-184. 

classes  of,  157-160. 

conjugation  of,  155,  166,  167,  295-300. 

finite,  234. 

future  tense  of,  173. 

government  of,  229,  230. 

imperative  mood,  153. 

impersonal,  266. 

indicative  mood,  153,  173. 

infinitive  form,  149,  150,  234. 

inflectional  conjugation  of,  155,  166. 

intransitive,  158,  159. 

irregular,  157,  289. 

modifiers  of,  39-41,  176. 

number  of,  154. 

parsing  of,  178. 

passive  construction  of,  253,  254. 

person  of,  154,  182. 

potential  mood,  173. 

predicate,  35. 

principal  parts  of,  177,  289. 

regular,  157. 

subjunctive  mood,  174. 

tense  inflection  of,  152,  153,  157. 

transitive,  158,  159. 

uses  of,  160-162. 

voice  of,  167. 
Voice,  167. 


I  What,  interrogative  pronoun,  123,  124. 

relative  adjective,  108. 

relative  pronoun,  120. 

subordinate  connective,  66. 

verb  form  following,  230. 
Whatever,  declension  of,  122. 

relative  adjective,  108. 
H  'hen,  subordinate  connective,  66. 
Whether,  use  of,  174. 

.  .  .  o r,  use  of,  263. 
Which,  interrogative  pronoun,  123,  124. 

relative  adjective,  108. 

relative  pronoun,  120,  121,  123. 
Whichever,  declension  of,  122. 

relative  adjective,  108. 
Who,  interrogative  pronoun,  123,  124. 

relative  pronoun,  120,  121. 

subordinate  connective,  66. 

verb  form  following,  230. 
Whom,  relative  pronoun,  223. 
Whoso,  declension  of,  122. 
Why  for  that,  200. 
Will,  would,  auxiliaries,  172,  173. 

predicate  verb,  169. 
Without,  for  unless,  200. 
Word  building,  276-288,  306-312. 
Word  element,  53. 

Word  groups,  peculiar  uses  of,  251-253. 
Word  modifiers,  in  phrases,  55-57. 
Words,  81-83,  276,  306. 

arrangement  in  sentence,  217-225. 

classification  of,  81. 

combination  of,  258,  259,  277. 

compound,  formed,  276. 

derivative,  276-288. 

idea,  48. 

independent,  201-203. 

omitted,  259,  260. 

related,  10. 

relation,  48,  191-200. 

sign  of  idea,  9. 

special,  260-264. 

special  uses  of,  265,  266. 

spelling  of  derivative,  284-288. 

Yes,  use  of,  261. 
You,  124,  126,  127. 

plural  verb  with,  183. 

subject  in  imperative  sentence,  100. 
Yours,  use  of,  130. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  J.  S.  GUSHING  &  Co.,  NORWOOD,  MASS.,  U.S.A. 


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